ME 215

CHAPTER 3
PROPERTIES IN
TENSION AND COMPRESSION

In daily life, engineering materials may be

exposed to different type of loadings such as:
tension, compression, bending, direct shear,
torsional shear, fatigue, impact, creep etc

To make sure that there is no failure/fracture of

the materials under such loads we have to
know their load carrying limits/capacities
This requires testing these materials in
laboratories to their upmost limits before they
are actually employed in actual life

Actual service conditions however, are usually

different from laboratory test conditions,
So, results of laboratory tests will not be directly
applicable to actual conditions.
They have to be somehow modified before used
in actual conditions
The tests done in laboratories have to be
performed under controllable conditions and
comply to some standarts.

Properties of materials under simple tensile

and compressive loads are usually determined
by the uniaxial type Tension and Compression
Tests.
These tests

are the easiest type of tests to evaluate the

properties.

Represent almost the condition of principal

stresses which are the reasons of failures.
Results of the test can be utilized for combined
stress situations.

Here is a simple tensile test

procedure:

Take a standart test specimen

Make necessary measurements on
specimen before the test
Place the specimen on testing
machine
Apply tensile load on the pecimen
starting from zero and increasing
gradually
Make a note of load and elongation
at different times of test
Proceed until specimen fractures
Make necessary measurements on
the fractured specimen

Force
,N

L,
mm

100

0.5

200

F/Ao

L /L0

Convert load vs elongation data to

stress vs strain data and
draw stress vs strain curve

Force,
N

L,
mm

100

0.5

200

F/Ao

L /L0

For all types of materials there are

two modes of behavior under loading.
Elastic behavior
Plastic behavior
The characteristics of the elastic
deformation are that the specimen
returns to its original dimensions upon
release of load.
The termination of the elastic behavior of a material is
known as elastic limit of a material.
When the load is increased beyond this point, the
deformation of the specimen does not disappear upon
release of load and part of the deformation is
permanent.

ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
For most of the engineering materials
the elastic behavior of a material obeys
Hookes law- there is a linear relation
between the stress and strain.
Such materials are called linearly
elastic. Some materials, like rubber, are
not linearly elastic and exhibit a nonlinear stress-strain curve as seen in the
curve.
The elastic limit is defined as the greatest stress which can be
applied without resulting in any permanent strain upon release of
load.
Elastic limit is a property of the material and is of great importance
in design applications. Because the allowable stress values in
design work are usually based on the elastic limit of materials.
A material has a high elastic strength if it resists loads without
being deformed plastically (yielding). High strength materials are

The elastic behavior of a metal is not necessarily linear

up to elastic limit. The point marking the end of the linear
relationship is called the proportional limit of a metal.
In general, a metal is said to be behaving elastically if the
Hookes law is obeyed and the stress-strain response is
simultaneous; when the stress reaches a value ,
material is strained instantaneously to the value as
determined b the Hookes law.
Let us consider some important features of the elastic portion
of a Stress-Strain diagram:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Stiffness (Elastic modulus)

Resilience
Yield strength (Elastic limit)
Ultimate strength
Ductility
Toughness index number
True stress-strain

1. Stiffness: It is the ratio of

incremental normal stress to
corresponding direct strain for
Tensile or Compressive stress.
For linearly elastic materials
this slope is constant and is
expressed by the Elastic
Modulus or Youngs Modulus.
E = d / d

=.E

There are four methods to

determine Elastic Modulus :
I. Initial Tangent
Modulus is the slope of
the stress- strain curve
at the origin.

II. Tangent modulus is

the slope of the stressstrain curve at any
given stress .

III. Secant Modulus is the

slope of the secant drawn
from the origin to any
specimen point P on the
tress-strain curve.
IV. Chord Modulus is the
slope of the chord between
any two specified points on
the stress-strain curve, the
slope of the line PQ.

Rigidity (different from stiffness)

It is the design terminology when the functional
requirements demand that the deformations (not the
strain) be small.
It is not a purely a material property but a
function of both E and the geometry factors A & L.

Elastic modulus (E) is almost a constant value for the

materials and changes with only few factors such as:
Temperature increase , E decrease
Directionally (anisotropy) in rolling effects E value
see Table 3.1 and p159)
Elastic Modulus, E, ranges from very low values to very
high values as in table below;
Elastomers . 1-70 kg/mm2
Thermoplastics . 100 -1700 kg/mm2
Thermosettings 700 -2000 kg/mm2
Cast Iron 8000 -20000 kg/mm2
Carbon Steel ..20000 -25000 kg/mm2
Ceramics
.10000
50000
kg/mm2
Refractory Hard Metals . ..up to 60000 kg/mm2

E is determined by the binding forces between atoms.

Since these forces cannot be changed without changing the
basic nature of the material, the elastic modulus is then one
of the most structure-insensitive of the mechanical
properties.
It is only slightly affected by;
Alloying Addition
Heat Treatment
Cold Work

2. Resilience: It is the capacity of a material for returning

to original dimensions after elastic deformation.
Work done by F on an elastic bar is the
area under Force vs deflection curve;
W = (F*e)
F= Force,
e= elastic deformation

Assuming that the material obeys Hookes law, this work is

converted into the elastic potential energy of the material
W = (. A) (.L)

A = cross-section area, L = length of the bar

The maximum potential elastic energy is reached when the bar

strained to its proportional/elastic limit Sy.

The resilience of a material, in the broad sense, is the area

under the stress-strain curve until the elastic limit of the
material.
U = (Sy2 / E) kg-mm/mm3
This is the area under stress-strain curve for the linearly elastic
materials.

An ideally resilient material is the one which has a high elastic limit
and low modulus of elasticity.

Though the definition of modulus of resilience is based on

elastic limit (or yield strength) of a material, in practice, the full
value of resilience is not utilized; for the design stresses have to be
kept below the elastic limit to avoid the failure of the part by
excessive deformation (yielding).
The total elastic energy that can be absorbed by an element is
dependent also upon the volume.
Resilience is an important property in design applications where
energy absorption is required; such as springs, parts subjected to

SPECIAL DEFINITIONS OF THE ELASTIC

LIMIT
For some of the engineering materials, the Sy point on
curve is not clearly identified such as for; cold worked steels and
non-ferrous metals.
Due to the importance of Sy in designs, two methods have been
divised to approximately find Sy point.
a) Offset yield strength: Hard steels and non-ferrous metals do not
have defined yield limit, therefore a stress, corresponding to a
definite strain (0.1% or 0.2%) is commonly used instead of yield
limit. This stress is called proof stress or offset yield limit
(offset yield strength)
a) Johnsons apparent elastic limit: this method is not used as
widely as the offset method due to the greater probability of
inaccuracy compared with the other method.

Offset yield strength and Johnsons apparent elastic limit

Sometimes a value of AB=BC is used instead of 0.5 BC in Johnsons
method
The elastic limit thus defined is then called the useful limit point.

PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR
The transition of the mechanical behavior from elastic to
plastic depends upon the type of a material and its condition
whether it is;
Hot rolled
Cold rolled
Heat treated
1. Tensile strength: It is the capacity of a material to resist
loads without fracture.
However, the common use of the tensile strength as a design
parameter is not unjustified, because most of the engineering
materials are weaker in tension. Tensile strength represents the
highest nominal stress a material is able to support prior to
fracture.
Though the tool steels posses very high strengths, their uses
other than tooling are limited because of their high cost.
Gray irons, though noted for their high compressive strengths,
are known to have poor tensile properties.

Titanium alloys have been developed primarily for their high

strength. The high strength to weight ratio and exceptional
resistance to corrosion of titanium make it an attractive material
for many applications such as compressor stages of aircraft
engines.

S = spring-back strain
strain

P = permanent

PMAX = permanent strain without fracture

In the plastic region of curve upon release of the

load the material will not return to its original dimensions
and a permanent deformation will result.
Under the curve, the area of triangle ABC within the
plastic region is called the Hyperelastic Resilience similar
to the case in elastic range.
This hyperelastic resilience is important in metal forming
since it represents the spring back from the deformed case
under load (BC).

To create a permanent strain of

OB we have to stress the material
up to point A where total strain is
OC.
During that time if the point
passes the top point then necking
starts (in ductile materials) and
geometry changes substantially.

Brittle and Ductile Materials

Brittle materials do not exhibit large plastic deformation.

Ductile material, on the contrary, exhibit large plastic
deformation as the name ductile refers to.

Note: Sut is as important as the Sy in design processes to

design a fail-safe engineering element or product. Factor of
safety is used as the insurance policy against failures.

Material Types can be

distinguished by characteristics
among the stress-strain curve
Ductile material : has ability to
under go large deformation before
fracture (rupture) or breaking.
(steel)
Brittle material : the rupture
occurs suddenly without any
noticable deformation (glass,
stone, normal concrete,
aluminum)
28

2. Compressive Strength: It is an important property

of materials when the designed elements are subjected
primarily to compression.
In principle, compressive strength is the opposite of
tensile strength. The material first goes through the
elastic strain range and then deforms plastically.
For ductile material, it is not possible to define the
ultimate and fracture strength. That is, in compression,
as the load increases in the plastic range the specimen
bulges.
Most of the engineering metals are stronger in
compression, that means Suc > Sut .

So a design based on Sut value will readily satisfy the condition of

compression. That means there may not be any need to test the
materials to determine their properties in compression.
Some examples for high compressive strength:

Alumina ...... 238 kg/mm2

Baron carbide.. 294 kg/mm2
Silicon carbide .... 70 350 kg/mm2 (dependin
process)
Zirconium diboride/silicon carbide .... . 105-350 kg/mm2
Steatite ...... 46 63 kg/mm2
Mo Cr Alumina ... 168 kg/mm2

Refractory hard metals are also characterized by high

compressive strength. They are about 400 kg/mm2.

Ductile material: Large deformation, Suc is not clearly

defined, area gets large, stress () gets down.
Brittle material: Small plastic deformation with failure along
max. shear stress plane, Suc is defined clearly.

Determination of the accurate diagrams in compression is

more difficult than for tension due to:
1. Alignment problem which creates bending stress.
2. Lateral restraining caused by friction specimen and the
compression plates.
3. Failure possibility by bucking if specimen is too long

Elastic modulus E and the yield strength Sy are approximately

equal in tension and compression for many metals although there
are exceptions.

3. Ductility and Brittleness: They are the terms used to describe

how much a material could deform plastically. They are the
measure of the ability of a material to undergo plastic
deformation.
Ductility is measured by percent elongation in length, R 1
and percent reduction in area, Ra

R1 = *100

Lf = gauge length after facture,

L0 =original gauge length

Ra = *100

A0 =original cross-section area,

Af = fractured cross section area

Percent elongation is commonly used due to easy

measurement of gauge lengths (Lf & L0) compared to the
reduction area method where Af (fractured cross section area) is
more difficult to measure accurately.

With brittle materials there is no

problem in calculating ductility or
brittleness since the deformation
or the strain is uniform over the
gauge length always.

In ductile material testing the

deformation is uniform up to the
max. ultimate strength point
where necking starts & beyond
that point plastic deformation is
contraction to a local region of
weakness in the specimen.
The deformation is no more
uniform over the original gauge
length & it is noted by a lateral
contraction (in diameter area)
concentrated in this region.

Necking itself is an indication of the ductility and a ductile

material is typified by the cup and cone fracture.

Ductility is an important in metal forming operations since

the extent of forming is dependent on the ductility of the
material.

Strain hardening is the resistance of a metal to further plastic

deformation. The tendency of a metal to strain harden is
indicated by the tangent moduli of the plastic curve. Smaller is
the slope of the curve, less the tendency of a material to strain
harden. (malleability)

Force (N)
4. Toughness:
It is the ability of a material to absorb
energy in the plastic range. It is the area
under the plastic curve of Force versus
deflection including fracture point.
The actual area under the -curve is
the summation of individual areas:
A1+A2+A3+A4
and the area A1 represents only a small
fraction of the whole area
When used with curve the area
under curve in the plastic range is
an indication of the work per unit volume
which can be done on the material
without causing it to rupture but some
plastic deformation.
It represents the energy per unit volume
that material can absorb until failure and
called as Toughness Index number, To

Fy
A2

A3 A4

A1
0

p u f
Deflection (mm)

Stress (N/mm2)

y
A2

A3

A4

A1
0

Stress (N/mm2)

Although the actual area

under the - curve is the
summation of individual
areas:
A1+A2+A3+A4

A2

A3

A4

A1
0

Toughness index
number can be
approximated and
simplified as;
T0 = S t * f

p
u
f
Strain (mm/mm)

Toughness index number; T0 = St * f is used to compare

the ability of materials to absorb energy plastically per unit
volume.
Toughness index number is a parameter which comprises both
strength St and the ductility f.
An ideally tough material is the one which has high S t
and great total elongation, (with resulting maximum area
under curve).
Toughness is important in applications where parts are
subjected to shock or impact such as; axles, gears, vehicle
frames, rock crushing equipment, air-hammers and
construction machinery.

TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN

This is a property, defined in the plastic
range, due to the geometry change of the
specimen.
Engineering stress and strain measures
incorporate fixed reference quantities. In
this case, undeformed cross-sectional area
is used.
True stress and strain measures account for
changes in cross-sectional area by using the
instantaneous values for area, giving more
=F/A
accurate measurements for events
such as
the tensile test
True stres() is defined as the applied
force divided by the actual area A

By constancy of volume,
AL=A0L0
=>
A=A0 L0/L
Also we know that : L = L0+L = L0 +L0 =
L0(1+)
Thus A = A0 L0/L0(1+) => A=A0 /(1+)
So : = F/A = F/[A0/(1+)] = (F/ A0 )*(1+) =
(1+)
finally
= (1+)

This equation
= (1+)
shows that the value of true stres is greater than the
engineering stress by the amount inside the
paranthesis (1+ ).
True strain() is defined as, the change in gauge
length with respect to the actual gauge length at that
instant.
Since

True strain in terms of

elongation comes out to
be:

In area terms,
however;
since

Based on area change, for cylindirical

specimens;

at fracture point with Df instead of

D

During test, if you note the Fult and Ffrac at ultimate and fracture
points and also measure D0 before test and Df at fracture point
after fracture happens you can mark two important points on the
curve.
At ultimate point :

=Lult /L0 and

= Fult/ A0

At fracture point :
Beyond the point when necking starts there is no universally
accepted definition of gauge length and an easy way of
constructing the curve between St point and fracture point is to
draw a straight line which is valid for most metals.

TENSILE PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Steel is the most commonly used one among
engineering metal. As an engineering it is important
to know what variables or factors effect the tensile
properties of the steel.
Mechanical propertiesof steelalong with some other
properties are affected by three basic groups of the
variables. These are:
Alloying elements(C,Ni,Cr,Va etc.)
Heat treatment
Fabrication(production)process.

Regardless of the alloy content, carbon content

strongly affects the Sy and Sut values of the carbon
steel. Therefore,required strength can determine the
carbon content
An increasing carbon content increases the Sy and

Regardless of the composition, steels of the same

hardness, produced by tempering after hardening,
generally have the same tensile and yields strength
given the relationship.
For carbon steels; as BHN increases ductility
decreases.

An alloy steel can give beter strength, ductility and

toughness so it has to be preffered to carbon steel in
designs subject to high stress or impact loading.
Hardenability (by heat treatment) can be used to
advantage to add useful and important properties to
the steel, such as a proper combination of
strength,ductility and toughness can be obtained. But
ruling section-size or max. diameter of material
should be checked for hardenability.
By cold working (Rolling,wire drawing or elongation
in tension) an annealed steel its Sut and BHN can be
increased, but the ductility decreases.
Rigidity is a design problem and function of the
geometry;

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TEST

RESULTS

Tensile and compression test results are affected by

the following factors
Metallurgical factors
Test conditions
Environmental conditions
Strain history
The influence of strain history or loading and
unloading modifies the stress-strain diagram.
When a material is subjected to a cycle of loading and
unloading ,or vice versa, some energy is dissipated
by the specimen. This event of lost energy is called,
generally, hysteresis energy.
It is an important consideration in the treatment of
anelasticity and fatique.

Another type of
grouping of the
affecting factors is
that:
Variables related to
the test specimen

Variables related to
the testing machine

Variables related to the test specimen

are:
Size effect and
Shape effect
A size different from
the standard values
for the same material
will result in a
different property
value as given in
Table.

Shape effect can clearly be seen in figure where the

L/d ratio seems to effect both the strength and the
ductility values of the same material.
Here too, the L/d ratio has to comply with the standards
for valid test results.

(a)Reduction of area elongation

(b)Stress-strain diagram for
ductile materials
(c)Forms of specimens

Relatively small L/d ratios refer to a feature of the materials

which is called to be the notch sensitivity.
The small L/d ratios convert ductile type of curve to brittle
type curves as seen in figure.

These abrupt geometry changes as in case of very small L/d

ratios causes stress concentrations in materials under load.

The strain concentration is not very important in applications

where the machine part is ductile and the load is static.

On the other hand it is very important in cases of brittle

materials which have limited capacity of plastic flow .

Some tensile
test specimens
of round/circular
and plate types

For the compression tests the specimen should preferably have circular
section for uniform straining.
The height to diameter (h/d) ratio has been standardized for avoding
buckling and also the ensure a free shear plane in case of brittle
materials as seen in figure

Table gives standard (h/d) ratios for different testing purposes

such as:
Testing bearing materials (short specimen, h/d=0.9)
Testing for general purpose (medium specimen, h/d=3)
Testing for modulus of elasticity determination (long

The factors related to

testing machine are:

Strain rate
Rigidity of machine
Load and extention
measuring device
Gripping
arrangement

Strain rate is related to the speed of the

gripping heads.
Figure shows the effect of high strain rate and
slow strain rate on curve .
At higher speeds curve shifts upwards.

Table gives maximum crosshead speeds for

different materials in strain/min units and
max/min and these values are recommended in
TS138 as well.

Table given maximum crosshead speeds for

different materials in strain/min units and
max/min and these values are recommended in
TS138 on well.

Table gives strain rates d/dt for different

materials for different objectives.

Rigidity of the machine contributes to the

deformation measurements since under load it is not
only the specimens but also the parts of the machine
which elongates.
Due to the deformation of the machine itself it is also
difficult to maintain a constant strain rate of the
specimen thus affecting the test result again.

Load and extention measuring

device
1.
Purely mechanical with inertias
2.
Electronic with negligible
inertia

High inertia mechanical

system will cause changes in
measurements especially at
high speeds when acceleration
comes into play.
Figure 7 shows the response
curves of high inertia
mechanical system with large
derivations at high speeds.
Electronic systems on the
other hand give always the
same measurement at all
speeds.better to use low
inertia measuring devicesfor
accurate results.
.

Gripping Devices or Arrangements

Similar to the machines rigidity effect,
the gripping devices have to be stiff and
rigid
No bending effect on the specimen has
to occur.

The selection of the steel for engineering

application is made on the basis of the;
Best combinations of the performance
An adequate service life and
A low cost of the finished product
Best combination of the peformance is related
to the properties such as:
Load carrying capacity,
strength
Suitability for processing,
ductility
Resistance to wear, hardness
Resistance to shock, toughness.