CIT Notes

Prof. Rakhi Tripathi

&
Prof. Rajneesh Chauhan

Three Faces of Networking

Fundamental concepts of networking
How data moves from one computer to another over a
network
Theories of how network operate

Technologies in use today

How theories are implemented, specific products
How do they work, their use, applications

Management of networking technologies

Security
Network Design
Managing the network

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Network Types (based on

Scale)

Local Area Networks (LANs) - room,

building
a group of PCs that share a circuit.

Backbone Networks -

less than few kms

a high speed backbone linking the LANs at various

locations.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) - (<

few 10 kms)
connects LANs and BNs at different locations
leased lines or other services used to transmit data.

Wide Area Networks (WANs) - (> few 10

kms)

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Same as MAN Inc

except wider scale

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Intranet vs. Extranet

Intranet
A LAN that uses the Internet technologies
Open only those inside the organization
Example: insurance related information provided to
employees over an intranet

Extranet

A LAN that uses the Internet technologies

Open only those invited users outside the organization
Accessible through the Internet
Example: Suppliers and customers accessing inventory
information in a company over an extranet

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7-Layer Model of OSI

Physical DataLink Network Transport Session Presentation Application
Please Do Not Touch Steves Pet Alligator

Application Layer
set of utilities used by application programs

Presentation Layer
formats data for presentation to the user
provides data interfaces, data compression and
translation between different data formats

Session Layer
initiates, maintains and terminates each logical session
between sender and receiver
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Integration of Voice, Video

& Data
Also called Convergence
Networks that were previously transmitted
using separate networks will merge into a
single, high speed, multimedia network in the
near future

First step (already underway)

Integration of voice and data

Next Step
Video merging with voice and data
Will take longer partly due to the high data
rates required for video
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World Wide Web

Web began with two innovative ideas:
Hypertext
A document containing links to other documents
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)
A formal way of identifying links to other documents

Invention of WWW (1989)

By Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in Switzerland

First graphical browser, Mosaic, (1993)

By Marc Andressen at NCSA in USA; later founded
Netscape
CERN - Conseil Europen pour la Rechrche Nuclaire (Berners-Lee, T. (2000) Weaving the Web. New York:
NCSA - National Center for Supercomputing Applications
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HarperCollins. P. 4)

How the Web Works

Main Web communications protocol:
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Server Computer

HTTP Request
Client Computer

HTTP Response

Clicking on a hyperlink or typing

a URL into a browser starts a
request-response cycle

A request-response cycle:
includes multiple steps since web
pages often contain embedded
files, such as graphics, each
requiring a separate response.

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HTML - Hypertext Markup Language

A language used to create Web
pages
Also developed at CERN (initially for
text files)
Tags are embedded in HTML
documents
include information on how to format
the file

XML - Extensible Markup Language

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A new markup
language becoming
Inc

HTML vs. XML

XML was designed to describe data
and to focus on what data is. HTML
was designed to display data and to
focus on how data looks .
HTML is about displaying information,
while XML is about describing
information.
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Electronic Mail
Heavily used Internet application
Much, much faster than snail mail (regular mail)
Extremely inexpensive (compared to $3-$10 per paper mail
cost)

Includes preparation, paper, postage, etc,

Can substitute for other forms of communication, such as
telephone calls

Eliminates telephone tag

E-mail users can answer at his/her convenience,
instead of time of call
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E-mail Standards
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Main e-mail standard for

Originating user agent and the mail transfer
agent
Between mail transfer agents
Originally written to handle only text files
Usually used in two-tier client-server architectures

Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Mail

Access Protocol (IMAP)
Main protocols used between the receiver user agent
and mail transfer agent
Main difference: with IMAP, messages can be left at
the server after downloading them to the client

Other competing standards

Common Messaging Calls (CMC), X.400

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Web-based e-mail
Client computer
with
Web

Server computer with

Web server
software

HTTP
request

LAN

SMTP packet

Server computer with

email server
software

browser

HTTP
response

SMTP
packet

Internet
SMTP packet
Client computer
with Web
browser

HTTP
request

LAN
HTTP
response

IMAP
packet

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Server computer
with e-mail server
software
IMAP or
POP packet
Server computer with
Web server
software
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Sample SMTP Message

Note that this SMTP message has no attachments.

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File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Enables sending and receiving files over the
Internet
Requires an application program on the client
computer and a FTP server program on a server
Commonly used today for uploading web pages
Many packages available using FTP
WS-FTP (a graphical FTP software)

FTP sites
Closed sites
Requires account name and password
Anonymous sites
Account name: anonymous; password: email
address
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Instant Messaging (IM)

A client-server program that allows real-time
typed messages to be exchanged
Client needs an IM client software
Server needs an IM server package

Some types allow voice and video packets to be

sent
Like a telephone

Examples include AOL and ICQ

Two step process:
Telling IM server that you are online
Chatting
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How Instant Messaging

Works

Client computer
with
e-mail client
software

IM packet

LAN

Sender sends a request to the IM server

telling it that sender is online. If a friend
connects, the IM server sends a packet to
senders IM client and vice versa.

When the sender types in text, the IM

client sends the text in a packet to the
IM server which relays it to the
receiver.
IM packet

LAN
IM packet

Internet
Client computer
with
IM client
software

Server
computer with
with IM
server
software

IM packet

If a chat session has more than two

clients, multiple packets are sent by
the IM server. IM servers can also
relay information to other IM servers.

LAN
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Voice over IP
Phone service over the Internet
Phone service via VoIP costs less
than equivalent service from
traditional sources due to using a
single network to carry voice and
data

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Existing System

IIT, Delhi
Other six organizations

PBX

MTNL

PBX

: All the existing internal phones configured with their old PBX

Six organizations: IIT-Bombay, IIT- Madras, IIT-Kharagpur, IISc Bangalore, CDAC and ERNet
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VoIP System
IIT,Delhi
Other six organizations

VoIP Server

2 Mbps link
VoIP Server
PBX

PBX

: IP soft/hard phones configured with VoIP server

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Cost
Startup cost: hardware, software, trainees and
permanent employees
Recurring cost: maintenance

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User Benefits

Cost benefit

Ease of placing an STD call

QoS provided

Transferring data + video conferencing

Requirements
Features

Open Source

Cisco CallManager

Price

Free

Rs. 5.4 lakh

Documentation

Not yet complete

Well maintained

Support

No support

Good Support

Reliability

Good

Excellent

Scalability

Average

Very Good

QoS Provided

Good

Good

Handling Calls

10,000

10,000+

Extended Mobility*

Not Yet

Yes

Compatibility

With all protocols

Only with standard

protocols

Interoperability

Yes. With most of the

Yes. With most of the

standard systems

standard systems

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Hard Vs. Soft Phones

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Videoconferencing
Provides real time transmission of video and audio
signals between two or more locations
Allows people to meet at the same time in different
locations
Saves money and time by not having to move people
around
Typically involves matched special purpose rooms with
cameras and displays

Desktop videoconferencing
Low cost application linking small video cameras and
microphones together over the Internet
No need for special rooms
Example: Net Meeting software on clients communicating
through a common videoconference server
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Cisco Videoconferencing

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Videoconferencing
Standards
Proprietary early systems
Common standards in use today
H.320
Designed for room-to-room videoconferencing over
high-speed phone lines
H.323
Family of standards designed for desktop
videoconferencing and just simple audio conferencing
over Internet
MPEG-2
Designed for faster connections such as LAN or
privately owned WANs
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Virtual LANs (VLANs)

A new type of LAN-BN architecture
Made possible by high-speed intelligent switches
Computers assigned to LAN segments by software

Often faster and provide more flexible network

management
Much easier to assign computers to different segments

More complex and so far usually used for larger

networks
Basic VLAN designs:
Single switch VLANs
Multi-switch VLANs
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Virtual Private Networks

Provides equivalent of a private packet switched
network over public Internet
Use Permanent Virtual Circuits (tunnels) that run over
the public Internet, yet appear to the user as private
networks
Encapsulate the packets sent over these tunnels using
special protocols that also encrypt the IP packets

Provides low cost and flexibility

Uses Internet; Can be setup quickly

Disadvantages of VPNs:
Unpredictability of Internet traffic
Lack of standards for Internet-based VPNs, so that not all
vendor equipment and services are compatible
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VPN Architecture

Wireless LANs (WLANs)

Use radio or infrared frequencies to transmit
signals through the air (instead of cables)
Basic Categories
Use of Radio frequencies (FOCUS of this chapter)
802.1x family of standards (aka, Wi-Fi)
Use of Infrared frequencies (Optical transmission)

Wi-Fi grown in popularity

Eliminates cabling
Facilitates network access from a variety of locations
Facilitates for mobile workers (as in a hospital)
Used in 90 percent of companies

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Principal WLANs
Technologies
WI-FI
IEEE 802.11b
Standardization started after .11a, but finished
before, more commonly used than .11a
IEEE 802.11a
First attempt to standardization of WLANs; more
complicated than .11b
IEEE 802.11g

WIMAX
Bluetooth
Also an IEEE standard 802.15

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Components of WLANs
Network Interface Cards
Many laptops come with WLAN cards
built in
Also available as USB cards
About 100-300 feet max transmission
range

Access Points (APs)

Used instead of hubs; act as a repeater
Must hear all computers in WLAN
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WIMAX
Commercial name for family of IEEE
802.16 standards
Two primary types: Fixed and mobile
Logical and physical topology same as
802.11 and shared Ethernet
Uses controlled access with a version of
802.11 point coordination function
Two types:
802.16d
802.16e
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Computer Security Incidents

Computer security increasingly important
More sophisticated tools for breaking in
Viruses, worms, credit card theft, identity theft leave
firms with liabilities to customers

Incidents are escalating at increasing rate

Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) was
formed at Carnegie Mellon University with US DoD
support
responds and raises awareness of computer security
issues, www.cert.org

Worldwide annual information security losses may

be $2 trillion
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Computer Security Incidents

Computer security increasingly important
More sophisticated tools for breaking in
Viruses, worms, credit card theft, identity theft leave
firms with liabilities to customers

Incidents are escalating at increasing rate

Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) was
formed at Carnegie Mellon University with US DoD
support
responds and raises awareness of computer security
issues, www.cert.org

Worldwide annual information security losses may

be $2 trillion
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Types of Security Threats

Business continuity planning related threats
Disruptions
Loss or reduction in network service
Could be minor or temporary (a circuit failure)
Destructions of data
Viruses destroying files, crash of hard disk
Disasters (Natural or manmade disasters )
May destroy host computers or sections of network

Intrusion
Hackers gaining access to data files and resources
Most unauthorized access incidents involve employees
Results: Industrial spying; fraud by changing data, etc.

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Network Assets
Identify the assets on the network

Organizations data files most important

Mission-critical applications also very important
Programs critical to survival of business
Hardware, software components
Important, but easily replaceable

Evaluate assets based on their importance

Prioritizing assets is a business decision, not a
technology decision
Value of an asset is a function of:
Its replacement cost
Personnel time to replace the asset
Lost revenue due to the absence of the asset

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Types of Assets
Hardware

Servers, such as mail servers, web servers, DNS servers, DHCP

servers, and LAN file servers
Client computers
Devices such as hubs, switches, and routers

Circuits

Locally operated circuits such LANs and backbones

Contracted circuits such as MAN and WAN circuits
Internet access circuits

Network
Software

Server operating systems and system settings

Applications software such as mail server and web server software

Client
Software

Operating systems and system settings

Application software such as word processors

Organizational
Data

Databases with organizational records

Mission critical
applications

For example, for an Internet bank, the Web site is mission critical

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Security Threats
Identify threats
Any potentially adverse occurrence that can
Harm or interrupt the systems using the network, or
Cause a monetary loss to an organization

Rank threats according to

Their probability of occurrence
Likely cost if the threat occurs

Take the nature of business into account

Example: Internet banking vs. a restaurant
Banks web site: has a higher probability of attack
and much bigger loss if happens
Restaurant web site: much less likely and small loss

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Inadequacy of Traditional
Design

Three forces make the traditional design

approach less appropriate for many of todays
networks:
1. Rapidly changing technology of computers, networking
devices and the circuits
More powerful devices, much faster circuits
2. Rapidly growing network traffic
Difficulty of estimating demand and growth requires
shorter planning periods of 3 years or so
3. Dramatic change in the balance of costs
Before: Equipment was costly; now: staff
Design goal: Minimize the staff management time
to operate rather than the hardware costs, such as
using standardized equipment
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Building Block Network

Design

Building block design is simpler than traditional

Key concept is to use a few standard
components to reduce long run costs by
simplification
Start with a few standard components with
ample capacity without extensive traffic analysis
Use few types of devices, over and over, narrow
product choice but deep throughout organization
Simpler design process yields easily managed network

Phases of design
Needs analysis, technology design, and cost
assessment
Cycles through, refining the outcome of each phase
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Phases of Building Block

Design
Needs analysis

Understand current and future needs

Classify users and applications as typical or high
volume
Identify specific technology needs

Technology design
Examine available, off-the-shelf technologies and
assess which ones meet the needs of user needs
In case of difficulty in determining traffic needs,
provide more capacity to keep ahead of growth

Cost assessment
Consider the relative cost of technology

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Building Block Network

Design

Cycles through all three

phases, refining the
outcome of each phase

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Reaching a Final Network

Design

Process of
cycling through
all three design
phases is cyclical
and repeated over
time.
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Needs Analysis
Goal is to understand why the network is being
built and what users and applications it will
support

improve poor performance?

enable new applications?
upgrade, replace old equipment?
standardize equipment based on vendor or protocol?

Goals differ depending on the network

LAN and BN typically are built with organizational
ownership, best to design in over-capacity
MAN/WAN rely more on leased equipment and circuits,
best to design at capacity, and then lease additional
circuits as required
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