Insecticides 101

Groups, Modes of Action &

Usage Strategies
David J. Shetlar, Ph.D.
The BugDoc
The Ohio State University,
OARDC & OSU Extension
Columbus, OH
January, 2005, D.J. Shetlar, all rights reserved

Notes:
Before we proceed, we must look at where we have been and where
we are headed with insecticides and miticides.
Rachael Carson in Silent Spring pointed out that insecticides were
getting more and more toxic to deal with insects that were becoming
resistant! During her time, we had organochlorine insecticides (e.g.,
DDT, Chlordane, Lindane, Heptachlor, etc.) that persisted for years,
even decades, and they often ended up in the food chain only to be
biomagnified in the food chain, especially in predators.
Organochlorine insecticides were quickly followed with
organophosphates and carbamate insecticides. Indeed, these
compounds appeared to become more and more toxic with each new
compound developed. While most organophosphates and carbamates
had shorter environmental residuals, they were still quite toxic and
insects and mites continued to develop resistance.
With EPAs FQPA review, most organophosphates and carbamates
have been restricted from residential usage and new pesticide
categories have been developed. We need to look at these new
groups!

Insecticide LD50s
Organophosphates (acetylcholinesterase inhibitors)

Acephate (Orthene)
Chlorpyrifos (Dursban)
Diazinon
Ethoprop (Mocap)
Fonofos (Crusade)
Isofenphos (Oftanol)
Isazofos (Triumph)
Malathion
Trichlorfon (Dylox/Proxol)

980
270
400
62
18
20
40-60
1000
250

Notes:
Do you remember your pesticide categories? Remember that they are based
primarily on oral and dermal LD50s.
Whats the LD50? Its the Lethal Dose of a chemical compound, measured as
milligrams of chemical per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg), which would
theoretically kill 50% of an exposed population. In reality, this is determined
by placing a range of doses into the stomachs of rats (sometimes mice) and
determining how many die. A graph of mortality versus dose is constructed
and the 50% mortality level is calculated.
How are LD50 used by EPA? EPA has established four pesticide categories:
I = high toxicity oral LD50 <50 mg/kg
signal words: danger, poison, skull & crossbones
II = medium toxicity oral LD50 >50 to 500 mg/kg
signal words: warning
III = low toxicity oral LD50 >500 to 2000 mg/kg
signal words: caution
IV = practically non-toxic oral LD50 >2000 mg/kg
signal words: caution

Insecticide LD50s
Carbamates (acetylcholinesterase inhibitors)

Bendiocarb (Turcam)
Carbaryl (Sevin)

156
246

Pyrethroids (disrupt nerve sodium pump)

Bifenthrin (Talstar)
Cyfluthrin (Tempo)
Fluvalinate (Mavrik)
L-cyhalothrin (Scimitar)
Permethrin (Astro)

375
826
282
79
430

New Insecticide LD50s

Tetranortriterpenoid (ecdysone blocker; antifeedant)

Azadirachtin A & B (Azatrol, Neem, etc.)

>3540
Spinosad (synaptic stimulation nicotinic acetycholine sites)

Spinosads (Conserve)

3783-5000

Diacylhydrazine (molt accelerating compound, induces molt)

Halofenozide (MACH2)

2850

Phenylpyrazoles (GABA receptor disruption)

Fipronil (Chipco Choice)

97

Notes:
While you will see that azadirachtin, spinosads and halofenozide are
definitely Category IV insecticides (practically non-toxic), how can fipronil
be considered as a new, lower risk insecticide with such a low LD 50??
Fipronil, while quite toxic, is used at very, very low rates, often less than
0.003 pounds of active ingredient per acre! Potential exposure to such
low rates are considered to be insignificant to people, pets and other
animals, but is still quite toxic to insects. In fact, one of the most popular
topical flea and tick products used for application to cats and dogs is
based on Fipronil!
This brings about another dictum commonly stated in toxicology: The
dose makes the poison!
Organochlorine, organophosphate and carbamate insecticides were
usually used in pounds of active ingredient per acre while many of the
newer insecticides, including pyrethroids, are used at tenths and
hundredths of pounds of active ingredient per acre, at least one order of
magnitude less!

New Insecticide LD50s

The Neonicotinoids

Nitroguanidine (post-synaptic block, nicotinic ACH sites)

Imidacloprid (Merit)

450

Pyridylmethylamine (post-synaptic block, nicotinic ACH sites)

Acetamiprid (TriStar)

217

Nitroguanidine (post-synaptic block, nicotinic ACH sites)

Clothianidin (Arena)

>5000

Nitroguanidine (post-synaptic block, nicotinic ACH sites)

Thiamethoxam (Meridian)

1563

Nitroguanidine (post-synaptic block, nicotinic ACH sites)

Dinotefuran (Safari)

>2000

Notes:
The neonicotinoids is one of the newest categories of insecticides.
Imidacloprid was the first in this chemical category to obtain
registration, both in the United States and internationally. Note that the
pure active ingredient is technically a category II (between oral LD 50 of
50 and 500), but the dermal LD50 is very high and formulated products
are well above category II levels. Other neonicotinoids have differing
toxicological profiles with Clothianidin and Dinotefuran reaching
category IV (practically non-toxic) levels!

Chemical Controls
(groups)
Pesticides
Repellents
Attractants/Pheromones
Desiccants
Not appropriate for turf & ornamentals!

Notes:
Remember that in the IPM principles, we talk about cultural controls,
biological controls and chemical controls.
While most people think of pesticides when the term chemical
control is used, entomologists included more than just these acute
toxicants. Repellents are not commonly used on plants, but we often
use them on our bodies or applied to pest to repel mosquitoes, fleas
and ticks. There are repellent materials being developed for
ornamentals usage. Pheromones (attractants) are chemicals that
insects use to communicate, often sexual readiness or alarm. We
often use sex pheromones to monitor insect activity so that pesticide
applications can be properly timed.
Desiccants are useful in dry environments, such as in our homes and
buildings for control of cockroaches and other creeping and crawling
pests. However, outside environments often deactivate such
desiccants or the desiccants can be phytotoxic to the plants!

Insecticide Groups
Synthetic Organics
Inorganics
Botanicals
Microbials
Fatty Acid Salts (soaps)
Oils
Not appropriate for turf but okay for ornamentals!

Insecticide Groups

Synthetic Organics
Organochlorines
Organophosphates
Carbamates
Pyrethroids
Insect Growth Regulators (IGR)
Neonicotinoids

Insecticide Groups

Inorganics
Boric Acid
Sulfur
Mercury, Lead, Arsenate
Fluoride
Cryolite (sodium fluoaluminate)
Silica (diatomaceous earth)
Not appropriate for turf & ornamentals!

Notes:
Inorganic means that these are compounds based on earthelemental materials and the traditional organic atoms of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen are not present.
Many inorganic compounds are relatively harmless to animals (e.g.,
sulfur, boric acid, cryolite) while others, especially the heavy metal
compunds are highly toxic and persistent in the environment (e.g.,
lead, mercury, fluorides, and arsenicals).
In the 1920s until the 1950s, we commonly used lead-arsenate as a
general garden insecticide! Even mercury-based fungicides were
common into the 1980s!
Sulfur is still used as an organic fungicide and miticide.

Insecticide Groups

Botanicals
Pyrethrins
Ryania
Rotenone
Sabadilla
Nicotine
Citronella
Azadirachtins (neem oil)
No longer available!

Notes:
While most botanicals are natural, organic materials, this doesnt
mean that they are naturally safe! Nicotine sulfate was a very
commonly used insecticide in the 1930s into the 1960s, but we now
know that it is a carcinogen and mutagen! Many of the rest of these
botanical insecticides are not being supported as EPA calls for
current toxicological data on each of them. This is most likely
because companies dont want to invest millions of dollars in
compounds that may end up like nicotine being a carcinogen
and/or mutagen! The only ones with more complete data packages
are pyrethrum and citronella.

Insecticide Groups

Microbials
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
(=delta-endotoxin)
Thuringiensin (Bt exotoxin)
Avermectins
Chitin
Spinosyns

Notes:
Microbial pesticides are pesticides generally derived from microbes or
microbial by-products. There are very few true biological microbial
pesticides. This would be using something like the milky disease of
white grubs which uses the actual bacteria that cause a lethal infection
in white grubs that ingest the spores. Most microbial pesticides use
chemicals produced by microbes.
Bacillus thuringiensis is a soil-dwelling bacterium that has over 30K
identified strains! Many strains produce a protein granule, many of
which are toxic to insects. The proteins that are active bind to insect gut
cells and punch holes in them, thereby causing a secondary infection by
bacteria leaking from the gut into the body cavity.
Avermectins are chemcials produced by single-celled fungi that have
insecticidal and miticidal properties. Spinosyns are similar in that these
are chemicals excreted by a soil-dwelling bacterium that over-stimulates
insect nervous systems.

Microbial Insecticides

Bt -endotoxins
Variety
Bt. kurstaki
Bt. aizawai
Bt. israelensis
Bt. tenebrionis
(=san diego)

Target
caterpillars
caterpillars
mosquitoes
leaf beetles

scarab grubs
Bt. japonensis
(strain 'Buibui')

Examples
Dipel, MVP
Mattch
Vectobac
M-one

How Insecticides & Miticides Work

PESTICIDE GROUPS
FATTY ACID SALTS (SOAP)
Insecticidal/miticidal Soaps
[Detergents]

PESTICIDE GROUPS
OILS
Petroleum Oils (mineral oil)
Dormant oil
Horticultural oil

Citrus Oils

(d-Limonene)

Soybean Oil, etc.

Notes:
Soaps and oils appear to work much the same way on living
organisms. They are membrane disruptors, causing cell membranes
to be broken open, thereby spilling out the cell contents!
Soaps are fatty-acid-salts, originally made by boiling fats with lye.
Depending on the length of the fatty acids used, you can have
insecticidal properties or herbicidal properties. Of course most soaps
also have antibiotic properties. Soaps emulsify (not dissolve!) fats
and oils allowing them to be suspended and washed away with
water. Detergents are very different chemically from soaps, but they
do the same thing, emulsify. While detergents can be great
insecticides, most detergent manufacturers do not want to register
their detergents as pesticides!
Oils, whether petroleum based or plant based, can dissolve fats and
oils. When coming into contact with a cell membrane, a lipo-protein
matrix, oils break the bonds and destroy the matrix.

Modes of Action

Affect on Target System

Neural
Cellular (metabolism)
Respiratory
Insect & Mite Cuticle
Growth Regulators - Hormonal
Desiccants
Most not appropriate for turf or ornamentals!

Notes:
Insecticides and miticides can adversely affect their targets in a
multitude of ways. Most commonly, disrupting the nervous system
has been the major mode of action of insecticides. The effects are
usually rapid, providing immediate satisfaction to the user.
Pesticides can also interfere with cell processes, such as energy
transfer (metabolism), respiration (movement of oxygen and carbon
dioxide), cell membrane maintenance, or ability to retain water.
Many pesticides modify the growth and development of their targets,
basically acting like or modifying hormone activity. Most entomologist
shy away from calling these Insect Growth Regulators, hormones
because many people may falsely conclude that these are the same
hormones that regulate their growth! But, insect growth regulators
and plant growth regulators influence different hormonal systems
than those possessed by humans and other vertebrates.

Affects on Nerves

DJS

Notes:
Neural transmission is a complicated process that includes an actual
electrical impulse that travels up and down nerve cords (axons) and
chemical transmission between nerve cells (synapse).
The electrical transmission is accomplished by nerve cells maintaining
an ion imbalance inside and outside the cell membrane. This is done
through movement of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-)
ions to opposite sides of the cell wall (sodium channel and GABA
channels). When the electrical impulse passes, this electrical charge is
switched, but almost immediately its restored.
At the synapse, when the electrical impulse arrives, small packets
(vacuoles) of acetylcholine are released within the synapse gap and
almost instantaneously move to the receiving nerve (acetylcholine
receptors) which starts another electrical impulse. To keep the
acetylcholine from continually firing the receiving nerve, there is an
enzyme (acetylcholine-esterase) that quickly destroys the acetylcholine,
thereby resetting the synapse for the next nerve impulse.

Affects on Nerves

DJS

Notes:
Organochlorine insecticides, pyrethoids as well as the new fiproles
disrupt the sodium/potassium/chloride channel systems that maintains
the electrical charge of nerve cell membranes. When this is disrupted,
nerves can not properly transmit the electrical impulse.
Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides block the acetylchlineesterase enzyme which causes the receiving nerve to keep firing. This
causes the affected animals to virtually twitch to death!
Neonicotinoids fill up the acetylcholine receptors, actually the nicotinicadetylcholine receptors (which insects have), thereby blocking neural
transmission. Affected insects simply stop activity especially feeding,
grooming and protective behaviors.
Spinosyns appear to act like acetylcholine, stimulating the receptors of
the receiving nerve. The result is much the same as organophosphate
or carbamate activity, but insects, again, are differentially affected by
spinosyns.

Modes of Action

Nervous Systems
Neural membrane disruption
(ion transport disruption)

sodium/potassium ions

chloride ions

(ion pumps)

(organochlorines & pyrethroids)

(fiproles = phenylpyrazoles)

Modes of Action

Nervous System
Neural synapse disruption
acetylcholine (ACh)
(neural transmitter)

cholinesterase (ChE)
(neural transmitter eraser)

(organophosphates & carbamates - inhibit ChE)

(alkaloids, like nicotine, mimic ACh)

Modes of Action

Nervous Systems
Neural post-synapse disruption
acetylcholine (ACh)
(neural transmitter)
(blocks)

ACh receptor
(neural transmitter receptor)
(stimulates)

(neonicotinoids and spinosyns)

Modes of Action

Cellular Systems
Cell membrane disruption
lipo-protein complexes
all cells
(soaps & oils)
midgut cells
(Bt. -endotoxins)

Notes:
Soaps and oils appear to break apart the lipo-protein matrix used in
cell membranes. This destroys the cells, causing their contents to leak
out or disruptive ions are allowed in.
The delta-endotoxin of Bt strains appear to attach to the cell walls of
the cells lining an insects mid-gut. These proteins eventually punch
through the cell walls, again destroying the cells and allowing gut
contents to leak into the body of the insect, thereby causing a
secondary, and usually lethal, infection.

Modes of Action

Cellular Systems
Metabolic disruption
ADP

ATP

(energy cycle)

(rotenone, dinitrophenols, pyrroles,

hydramethylnon, arsenicals & fluorine)

Notes:
All living things seem to use the same basic metabolic pathways
essential in transforming energy into useful forms that can allow the
cell to construct new molecules and modify other ones. Most of this
energy transfer is located in the cells mitochondria and the Krebs
cycle is the one most studied in basic biology. Within this cycle,
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
are the major energy transfer molecules. Various pesticides can
interfere with this energy transfer, thereby shutting down cellular
functions.
Unfortunately, since these pathways are fairly universal, pesticides
affecting these pathways often have adverse affects on most living
organisms!

Modes of Action

Growth Regulators (IGRs)

Cuticle formation disruption
(azadirachtin, diflubenzuron)
(hexythiazox?)

Molting hormone agonist

(halofenozide, methoprene, fenoxycarb)

Juvenile hormone mimics

(hydramethylnon)

MODES OF ACTION
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
Suffocation

(soaps & oils, ??)

MODES OF ACTION
INSECT & MITE CUTICLE
Physical damage
abrasion of cuticle surface
(diatomaceous earth)

MODES OF ACTION
DESICCANTS
Drying agents
(silica aerogel, salts)

Modes of Transmission
(Reaching the Target)

Contact
Stomach
Inhalation
Systemic

Notes:
Most insecticides get into insects through the cuticle (by contact) to
through the gut (by ingestion). Contact can occur by actually hitting the
insect with droplets of the insecticide mix or the residue of the
insecticide can be left on surfaces. When the insect walks across these
surfaces, sufficient material is picked up by their tarsi (feet) or other
parts of the body, absorbed through the cuticle to kill the insect.
Inhalation is not a common mode of insecticide intake, however, some
greenhouse fumigants and termite fumigation materials are still applied
in this manner.
Systemic normally means that the plant picks up the insecticide so
when the insect feeds on the plant, it ingests the insecticide at the same
time. Systemic can be further subdivided into translaminar systemic
meaning that the insecticide is just absorbed into the underlying plant
tissues, or translocated systemic, meaning that the insecticide is moved
through the plant parts within the vascular system. Orthene is
translaminar when applied to plant leaves and translocated if injected
into the soil where the roots can pick it up.

Control Approaches
Tolerance
Curative
Preventive
Rescue
Multiple Target
Chemical-Cultural-Biological
Integrated Pest Management
Plant Health Care

Notes:
Every pest situation comes with its own unique set of variables. In
many cases, the pest doesnt cause extensive damage, so the pest can
be tolerated. Remember, just because you see a pest doesnt mean
you have to do something! Some pests are more easily controlled in a
preventive mode and some pesticides work better as preventive
applications (especially fungicides). Other pests can be monitored and
controlled after they appear to reach levels that can not be tolerated.
This is using the curative strategy. When pests are not detected and
they cause extensive damage, then we often have to rescue the plants
with more toxic and quicker acting pesticides.
Pests rarely occur one-at-a-time on plants and applications of certain
pesticides can knock out more than one pest with a single application, if
the application is made at a specific time! This is the multiple target
principle.
We also should keep in mind overarching approaches when using
pesticides, such as IPM (using biological, cultural and chemical tactics
together) and Plant Health Care.

Japanese Beetle Life Cycle in Ohio

JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT

NOV

RESCUE

Preventive Strategy

Curative Strategy

DEC

Application Targeting
Where is pest located?
(upper or lower leaf surface, thatch, soil,
borer, leafminer, etc.?)

When is pest MOST susceptible?

(know life cycle and most susceptible stage(s).

Northern Masked Chafer Life Stages

26

120!

Differential susceptibility of masked chafer grubs to an

insecticide using the first instar amount as a unit of 1.

Application Timing
(timing strategies)
Calendar Dates (& Rounds)
Degree-days or Phenology
IPM - sample & thresholds
IPM - risk assessment

Notes:
There are dozens of ways to time applications of pesticides. The
simplest method is to look for the pests and make an application when
their levels warrant control. However, some pests are difficult to detect
until they are in a stage that may be more difficult to control. In these
cases, pest managers often resort to calendar date applications. The
problem with calendar date applications is that each year is often
unique, sometimes being cooler or warmer than normal. In this case
using degree-day models or phenological sequences can help account
for the unique weather conditions being encountered. Degree-days
are simply a measure of heat units above a certain threshold (usually
50 degrees F for insects). Phenology is keeping track of what plants
and pests are doing (e.g., flowering of dogwood is the time that annual
bluegrass weevils lay eggs).
Risk rating is simply keeping records of what occurred in pervious
seasons. If you had a plant affected by spider mites or turf infested
with white grubs, these pests are more likely to occur again next
season than if they had not been present this season.

Sprays: Important Factors

Formulations
Volume & Pressure
Drift & Nozzle Size
Adsorption & Photodegradation
Mixes - Compatibility
Area versus Cover Sprays

Why Insecticides &

Miticides Dont Work
Timing
Coverage & Residual
Mix Incompatibility
Pest Resurgence
Degradation
(photo, microbial, chemical)

Pest Resistance

Notes:
When an insecticide or miticide fails, most applicators suspect that the
pests have suddenly developed resistance. While resistance is always
a potential issue, it is actually a fairly rare occurrence with pests of
turfgrasses and ornamental plants! This is when I begin my ten
questions about how and when the application was made.
For miticides, thorough coverage is essential for success since the tiny
mites can literally walk around the droplets of miticides! For white
grubs, was the insecticide irrigated in sufficiently to move the
insecticide to the soil-thatch interface? How much thatch was present?
If more than a half inch, most of the insecticide likely adsorbed to the
organic matter!
When did you last calibrate your sprayer or spreader? Many
insecticides are used at very precise rates and any rates less than what
is recommended can result in failure.
New insecticides can be susceptible to photodegradation, so residues
left on leaf surfaces often disappear in short order.