Questions and Approaches

definitions
the questions of developmental biology
approaches to developmental biology
o comparative embryology
o evolutionary embryology
o medical embryology & teratology

10th ed. References:

Chapt 1 p. 1-6; 14; 23-28

Definitions
Embryology: the study of development between fertilization
and birth (traditional definition).
zygote (fertilized egg) => developed adult body
Developmental biology: the study of all developmental
processes throughout the life of the organism; from
fertilization to death.

Questions of developmental biology

1) Differentiation: the generation of specialized cell types
from undifferentiated precursors.
How are the different cell types generated?
zygote
multicellular organism
===============>
with many cell types
(one cell)

Questions of developmental biology

2) Morphogenesis: the organization of cells into ordered and
predictable structures.
What factors direct the formation of ordered structures?
cells ==============> specific tissues and organs
at specific sites

Questions of developmental biology

3) Growth: controlled cell division and proliferation.
How is cell division regulated?
differentiated
cells

=============>
limited # of cell
divisions

organized
structures

If abnormal # of cell divisions:

=> malformations or disruptions

Amphibian development

Ectodermal
derivatives

Mesodermal
derivatives

Endodermal
derivatives

Germ
line

Major cell lines

Germ cells:
produce gametes
contain the genetic material passed to the next generation
Somatic cells:
form the body of the organism
all cells other than the germline

Questions of developmental biology

4) Reproduction: the production of new individuals
the production of new organisms similar in form to
their parents ensures the continuity of life
germline: generates gametes (egg/sperm) that transmit
genetic information
How is the germ line set aside?

Questions of developmental biology

5) Evolution: results from the accumulation of inherited
modifications of developmental programs.
the generation of new species
How are new body forms generated?

Questions of developmental biology

6) Environmental integration: the induction of development
by environmental cues.
How is development influenced by the environment of the
organism?
environment/non-genetic factors
zygote ========> development
genes
Example: identical twins.
identical genetic information but appearance may differ,
presumably because of non-genetic factors

Environmental integration

Approaches to the study of developmental biology

Three categories:
anatomical
experimental
genetic

Anatomical approaches
Comparative embryology: studies how the anatomy of the
embryo changes during development in different
organisms.
Evolutionary embryology: studies how variations in
developmental patterns account for evolutionary change.
Medical embryology & Teratology: the study of birth defects
(genetic or induced), and what can abnormalities tell us
about the normal process of development.

Comparing vertebrate embryos

Evolutionary embryology:
accumulation of genetic changes
Dachshunds:
short legs are caused by a duplication of the Fgf4
(fibroblast growth factor 4) gene, which signals cartilage
precursors cells to stop dividing and begin differentiation
Long-haired dachshund:
longer hair is caused by an additional change: a mutation
in the Fgf5 gene, which is involved in hair production

Selection of genetic
changes in dachshunds

Evolutionary embryology:
taxonomic classification
The use of larval forms for taxonomic classification:
relationships between groups of organisms have been
established by finding common embryonic or larval forms.
Example: barnacles
barnacles were originally classified as molluscs based
on adult morphology
in the 1830s, J. V. Thompson (English zoologist)
observed that larval barnacles were very similar to larval
shrimp and proposed (correctly) that barnacles should be
classified as arthropods

Barnacles

Embryonic homologies
Homologous structures are organs that have similar
functions because they are derived from a common
ancestral structure.
examples: vertebrate forelimbs
This similarity is different from that between analogous
structures, which perform similar functions but do not
arise from a common ancestor (example: the wings of
insects and birds)

Embryonic homologues:
vertebrate forelimbs

Evolutionary change is based on

developmental change
Homologous anatomical structures differentiate by altering
development.
Example: the bat wing is made in part by:
1)maintaining a rapid growth rate in the cartilage that forms
the fingers (digits: I-V)
2)preventing cell death in the webbing between the fingers
(arrow: the cell death occurring in mice and humans
results in free digits)

Evolutionary change is based on

developmental change

Evolutionary change is based

on developmental change

Medical embryology:
the study of malformations
Malformations are abnormalities caused by genetic events
(gene mutations and chromosomal defects).
Piebaldism is caused by a mutation in kit, a gene that
normally enables certain cell types to proliferate & migrate.
Affected cell types:
neural crest cells (the precursors of pigment cells, some ear
cells, and gut neurons responsible for peristalsis)
=> underpigmentation, deafness, and gut malformations
blood cell precursors => anemia
germ cell precursors => sterility

Piebaldism feature of Waardenburg syndrome

Magpie

Bald Eagle

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

RTK

Medical embryology:
Piebaldism

A mouse model displays the same syndrome as humans and

can be used for developmental studies.

Teratology: the study of disruptions

Disruptions are abnormalities caused by exogenous agents
= teratogens: chemicals, radiation, viruses, hyperthermia
Phocomelia: a condition in which the long bones of the limbs
are deficient or absent.
caused by the ingestion of thalidomide by pregnant women
during days 20-36 postconception

Phocomelia