EE535: Renewable Energy: Systems,

Technology & Economics

Session 4: Solar (1): Solar Radiation

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar Radiation
Energy from the sun in the form of ultra-violet, visible and infra-red electromagnetic
radiation is known as solar radiation

Annual solar radiation on

a horizontal surface at the
equator is over
2000kWh/m2
In Northern Europe this
falls to about 1000kWh/m2
(per annum)

Ultraviolet
Visible
Near-Infrared
Infrared

0.20 - 0.39
0.39 - 0.78
0.78 - 4.00
4.00 - 100.00

EE535 Oct

The tilt between the sun

and the land reduces the
intensity of the midday
sun
S Daniels

Orientation
z

Horizon
Equator
is the declination of the sun
is the hour angle of the sun
is the angle between the incident
solar flux and the normal to the surface

Flux of solar radiation incident

on a surface placed at the top of
the atmosphere, depends on
time t, geographical location
(latitude , longitude , and on
the orientation of the surface
E(t, , ) = S(t)cos (t , , )
S(t) is known as the solar constant

The solar constant is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation

per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays,
at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from
the Sun to the Earth).

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar radiation spectrum for direct

light at both the top of the Earths
atmosphere and at sea level
The sun produces light
with a distribution similar
to what would be expected
from a 5525 K (5250 C)
blackbody, which is
approximately the sun's
surface temperature
Radiation interacts with
matter in several ways:

Absorption
Transmission
Scattering
Reflection

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radiation
EE535 Oct
S Daniels

Solar Quantities

The sun generates approximately 1.1 x 10 E20 kilowatt-hours every second.

The earths outer atmosphere intercepts about one two-billionth of the energy generated by the sun, 1.5 x 10 E18
kilowatt-hours per year.
Because of reflection, scattering, and absorption by gases and aerosols in the atmosphere, only 47% of this, (7 x 10
E17 ) kilowatt-hours, reaches the surface of the earth.
In the earths atmosphere, solar radiation is received directly (direct radiation) and by diffusion in air, dust, water,
etc., contained in the atmosphere (diffuse radiation). The sum of the two is referred to as global radiation.
The amount of incident energy per unit area and day depends on a number of factors, e.g.:
Latitude
local climate
season of the year
inclination of the collecting surface in the direction of the sun.
TIME AND SITE
The solar energy varies because of the relative motion of the sun. This variations depend on the time of day and the
season. In general, more solar radiation is present during midday than during either the early morning or late
afternoon. At midday, the sun is positioned high in the sky and the path of the suns rays through the earths
atmosphere is shortened. Consequently, less solar radiation is scattered or absorbed, and more solar radiation reaches
the earths surface.
The amounts of solar energy arriving at the earths surface vary over the year, from an average of less than 0,8
kWh/m2 per day during winter in the North of Europe to more than 4 kWh/m2 per day during summer in this region.
The difference is decreasing for the regions closer to the equator.
The availability of solar energy varies with geographical location of site and is the highest in regions closest to the
equator.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar Absorption and Reflection

When a photon is absorbed, its

energy is changed into a different
form: electrical or heat
A fraction of the incoming solar
radiation is reflected back into
space this is known as the albedo
(a0) of the earth-atmosphere system
Annual average of a0 is 0.35
Reflection from clouds 0.2
Reflection on cloudless
atmosphere (particles, gases) - 0.1
Reflection on the earths surface
0.05

Radiation absorbed by the Earths

atmosphere

Direct Solar
Radiation

Solar radiation at normal incidence in

the direct beam from the sun

Diffuse Solar
Radiation

Scattered radiation on a horizontal

surface

Global Solar
Radiation

Sum of the direct beam plus the diffuse

component on a horizontal
surface

Infra-red Radiation

Terrestrial infra-red radiation emitted by

the sky on the Earth's surface

Net Radiation
balance

Combined downward solar radiation

and sky infra-red minus upward
reflected solar and terrestrial
radiation

Turbidity

Measure of the amount of scattering in

the atmosphere

A0 = E (1-a0)

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar Corrections

Direct normal solar radiation

is the part of sunlight that comes directly from
the sun. This would exclude diffuse radiation,
such as that which would through on a cloudy
day. Iindication of the clearness of the sky.
Diffuse sky radiation
is solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface
after having been scattered from the direct
solar beam by molecules or suspensoids in the
atmosphere.

It is also called skylight, diffuse skylight, or

sky radiation and is the reason for changes in
the colour of the sky.
Of the total light removed from the direct solar
beam by scattering in the atmosphere
(approximately 25% of the incident radiation
when the sun is high in the sky, depending on
the amount of dust and haze in the
atmosphere), about two-thirds ultimately
reaches the earth as diffuse sky radiation.
Global Horizontal Radiation
total solar radiation; the sum of direct, diffuse,
and ground-reflected radiation;

however, because ground reflected radiation is

usually insignificant compared to direct and
diffuse, for all practical purposes global
radiation is said to be the sum of direct and
diffuse radiation only.

EE535 Oct

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/shining/page12_fig.html

[Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surfac

area in a given time.
It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter
(W/m2) per day.
In the case of photovoltaics it is commonly measured as kWh/(kWpy) (kilowa
hours per year per kilowatt peak rating). ]

S Daniels

Direct Normal Radiation

E = EscRaO3GaWaAErmCi

Ra : Rayleigh scattering by molecules in the air

O3 : absorption by ozone
Ga : absorption by uniformly mixed gasses (CO2 & O2)
Wa : absorption by water vapour
Ae : extinction by aerosol particles
Ci : extinction by high clouds of cirrus types

Scattering and absorption are strongly wavelength

dependent - (consequence?)

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Clouds
Cloudfree (direct beam insolation) and cloudy periods
(prevailing diffuse radiation) average to a mean irradiance
For the assessment of solar power plant sites, short interval
recordings of sunshine, direct and diffuse radiation are
required
Clouds can be classified by their optical depth
2 > dci (1) > 0.2 > dci (2) > 0.02 > dci (3) > 0

Cloud Free Line Of Sight Probabilities (CFLOS) are

available (World Atlas)
indicates for a given time and location to what percentage the sky
is cloudfree

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

European Irradiation

The European Commission's Joint Research Centre,

for Environment and Sustainability
EE535 Oct
S Institute
Daniels

Quotation from MET.ie

Ireland normally gets between 1400 and 1700 hours of sunshine each
year.
The eastern Sahara Desert, however, which is the sunniest place in the
world, gets an average of 4300 hours per year.
Irish skies are completely covered by cloud for well over fifty percent
of the time. This is due to our geographical position off the northwest
of Europe, close to the path of Atlantic low pressure systems which
tend to keep us in humid, cloudy airflows for much of the time.
1887 was the sunniest summer in the 100 years from 1881 to 1980,
according to measurements made at the Phoenix Park in Dublin. A
more recent summer, 1980, was the dullest. The difference was
considerable, with the summer of 1887 being twice as sunny as that of
1980.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Typical Figures

The intensity of the sunlight that reaches the earth varies with time of the day
and year, location, and the weather conditions. The total energy on a daily or
annual basis is called irradiation and indicates the strength of the sunshine.
Irradiation is expressed in Wh/m per day or for instance kWh/m per day.
To simplify calculations with irradiation data solar energy is expressed in
equivalents of hour's bright sun light. Bright sun light corresponds with a
power of about 1,000 W/m so one hour of bright sunlight corresponds with an
amount of energy of 1 kWh/m.
This is approximately the solar energy when the sun shines on a cloudless day
in the summer on a surface of one square meter perpendicular to the sun.
The optimum orientation and inclination angle will vary from site to site
On-site measurements essential
Ideally you want the cell oriented at 90 to the sun at all times

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar Panels

A solar panel produces electricity even when there is no direct sunlight. So

even with cloudy skies a solar energy system will produce electricity (see
How does it work). The best conditions, however, are bright sunlight and the
solar panel facing towards the sun. To benefit most of the direct sunlight a
solar panel has to be oriented as best as possible towards the sun. For places
on the Northern Hemisphere this is south, for countries on the Southern
Hemisphere this is north.
In practice, the solar panels should therefore be positioned at an angle to the
horizontal plane (tilted). Near the equator the solar panel should be placed
slightly tilted (almost horizontal) to allow rain to wash away the dust.
A small deviation of these orientations has not a significant influence on the
electricity production because during the day the sun moves along the sky
from east to west.
Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but
performance can be improved by adjusting the angle for summer and winter.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Important geometrical parameters,

which describe Earth-Sun relations
Declination Angle
n day of year (days since Jan 1st )

Sun Height
The optimal solar device tilt
Can be estimated from:
EE535 Oct

Ref: http://www.pvresources.com/en/location.php

h = hour angle
L = Latitude

Solar Azimuth
S Daniels

Declination Angle
d

The declination angle, denoted by d, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth
on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth around
the sun. If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination would
always be 0.
However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45 and the declination angle varies plus or
minus this amount.
Only at the spring and autumn equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Solar Panel Tilt Angle

The sun moves across the sky from east to west. Solar panels are most
effective when they are positioned facing the sun at a perpendicular angle at
noon.
Solar panels are usually placed on a roof or a frame and have a fixed position
and cannot follow the movement of the sun along the sky. Therefore they will
not face the sun with an optimal (90 degrees) angle all day. The angle between
the horizontal plane and the solar panel is called the tilt angle.
Due to motion of the earth round the sun there are also seasonal variations. In
the winter the sun will not reach the same angle as in summer. Ideally, in the
summer solar panels should be placed somewhat more horizontal, to benefit
most from the sun high in the sky. However these panels will then not be
placed optimally for the winter sun.
To achieve the best year round performance solar panels should be installed at
a fixed angle, which lies somewhere between the optimum angle for summer
and for winter. For each latitude there is an optimum tilt angle. Only near to
the equator the solar panels should be placed horizontally.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Tilt and azimuth angle of

photovoltaic modules

The proper tilt and azimuth angle choice is by far more important for photovoltaic systems design than solar thermal
system design.

Manual or automatic tilt angle adjustment can increase the total light-electricity conversion up to 30 % and more in locations with high
values of solar radiation.
Incidence angle should be as close to 90 as possible.
Shaded locations, including partially shaded, are not suitable for photovoltaic module fixation.
Modules should be south oriented.

The following general recommendations should be considered, if you design a photovoltaic system:
Yearly average maximum output power - the photovoltaic modules tilt angle should equal local latitude.
Maximum output power in winter - the photovoltaic modules tilt angle should equal local latitude + 15 (max +20).
Such a tilt angle is a good solution in areas, where the winter load is greater than the summer load. The electricity
consumption for lighting is greater during winter than summer.
Manual photovoltaic module tilt angle adjustment - in small systems modules should be fixed in a way, which allows
manual adjustment of the module tilt angle. In March the tilt angle should be adjusted to equal latitude, in May the tilt
angle equals latitude minus 10 degrees, in September the tilt angle equals latitude and in December the tilt angle equals
latitude plus 10 degrees. With such an adjustment the maximal efficiency could be obtained throughout the year.
Accurate and maximum energy output of larger systems should be based on exact calculations, because energy output is
influenced by different factors, such as local climatic conditions (solar radiation availability in different seasons, local
cloudiness or fogginess in winter, temperature and so on). You will need a long-term solar radiation data for the chosen
location.

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Watt Peak
A solar cell produces electricity when it is exposed to light. Depending
on the intensity of the light (the irradiance in W/m) a solar cell
produces more or less electricity: bright sunlight is preferable to shade
and shade is better than electric light. To compare solar cells and
panels it is necessary to know the so-called nominal power of such a
cell or panel. The rated power, expressed in Watt peak or Wp, is a
measure of how much energy such a solar panel can produce under
optimal conditions.
To determine and compare the nominal power of solar panels, the
output is measured under standard test conditions (STC). These
conditions are:
- An irradiance of 1,000 W/m
- Solar reference spectrum AM 1.5 (this defines the type and colour of
the light)
- Cell temperature of 25 C (Importantly, the efficiency of a solar panel
drops when the cell temperature rises).

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Site Analysis
The choice of a proper location is the first and the very essential step
in solar system design procedure.
It is critical that the modules are exposed to sunlight without
shadowing at least from 9 am to 3 pm; therefore, the properties and
values of solar insolation should be studied. The modules have to be
fixed with proper tilt angle allowing the system efficient operation.
When planning a solar array installation one of the first things you'll
need to determine is the design month, which is the month with the
lowest insolation. - this assumes power consumption is more or less
constant throughout the year. If not the case then the design month
becomes the month with the highest average daily power use. In
systems tied to an electric grid this isn't as important because your
utility can pick up the slack but when dealing with off the grid systems
it becomes imperative in order to keep the battery charged

EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Useful Solar Power

Solar Thermal direct heating of buildings and
water
Solar Photovoltaic direct generation of
electricity
Solar Biomass using trees, bacteria, algae, corn,
soy beans, or oilseed to make energy fuels,
chemicals, or building materials
Food feeding plants, humans, and other animals
EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Global Averages
The average annual global radiation impinging on
a horizontal surface which amounts to approx.
1000 kWh/m2 in Central Europe, Central Asia, and
Canada reach approx.
1700 kWh/m2 in the Mediterannian.
2200 kWh/m2 in most equatorial regions in African,
Oriental, and Australian desert areas.

In general, seasonal and geographical differences

in irradiation are considerable and must be taken
into account for all solar energy applications.
EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Calculation
From European Irradiation Data (slide 10), Ireland
has on average 1000kWhrs / m2 / year of sunlight
= 2.7 kWhrs / m2 / day
= ~ 108 watts / m2
Assume average (total) energy consumption in
Ireland is 120kWh / day / person
( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_b
y_energy_consumption_per_capita)
EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Calculation

Population of Ireland 4010000

Assume panels are 10% efficient
This works out at 440 ~ 1m2 panels per person
Assume approx 4 times this area per panel needed
for infrastructure 1777 m2
Required area for the population of Ireland???
7182 km2
> area of Mayo (5589km2)
= area of Cork (7459km2)
EE535 Oct

S Daniels

Moral of the Story

Country scale problem needs country scale
solution
(economically) Harvestable power limited
Storage needed due to fluctuating nature
(scale?)
Infrastructure requirements substantial
Impact of efficiency substantial
What about seasonal variations?
EE535 Oct

S Daniels

EE535 Oct

S Daniels