Chapter 4

Euclidean Vector Spaces

4.1 Euclidean n-Space
4.2 Linear Transformations from
Rn to Rm
4.3 Properties of Linear
Transformations Rn to Rm

4.1 Euclidean n-Space

Definition
Vectors in n-Space

If n is a positive integer, then an

ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n
real numbers (a1,a2,,an).. The set of
all ordered n-tuple is called n-space
and is denoted by Rn

Definition

Two vectors u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) and v=(v1 ,v2 ,, vn) in Rn are
called equal if

u1 v1,

u 2 v2 ,...,

u n vn

The sum u+v is defined by

u v (u1 v1 , u 2 v2 ,..., un vn )
and if k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is
defined by

ku (ku1 , ku2 ,..., kun )

The operations of addition and scalar

multiplication in this definition are called the
standard operations on Rn.
The Zero vector in Rn is denoted by 0 and is
defined to be the vector 0=(0,0,,0)
If u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) is any vector in Rn , then the
negative( or additive inverse) of u is denoted
by u and is defined by -u=(-u1 ,-u2 ,,-un)
The difference of vectors in Rn is defined by
v-u=v+(-u) =(v1-u1 ,v2-u2 ,,vn-un)

Theorem 4.1.1
Properties of Vector in Rn

If u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un), v=(v1 ,v2 ,, vn) , and w=(w1 ,w2 ,

, wn) are vectors in Rn and k and l are
scalars, then:
(a) u+v = v+u
(c) u+0 = 0+u = u
u=0
(e) k(lu) = (kl)u
(g) (k+l)u = ku+lu

(b) u+(v+w) = (u+v)+w

(d) u+(-u) = 0; that is u(f) k(u+v) = ku+kv
(h) 1u = u

Definition
Euclidean Inner Product

If u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un), v=(v1 ,v2 ,, vn) are vectors

in Rn , then the Euclidean inner product
uv is defined by

u v u1v1 u2 v2 ... un vn

Example 1
Inner Product of Vectors in
R4The Euclidean inner product of the

vectors
u=(-1,3,5,7) and v=(5,-4,7,0)
in R4 is
uv=(-1)(5)+(3)(-4)+(5)(7)+(7)(0)=18

Theorem 4.1.2
Properties of Euclidean Inner
Product

If u, v and w are vectors in Rn and k is any

scalar, then
(a) uv = vu
(b) (u+v)w = uw+ vw
(c) (k u)v = k(uv)
(d) v v 0 Further,v v 0 if and only if
v=0

Example 2
Length and Distance in R4
(3u+2v)(4u+v) = (3u)(4u+v)+(2v)(4u+v)
= (3u)(4u)+(3u)v
+(2v)(4u)+(2v)v
=12(uu)+11(uv)+2(vv)

Norm and Distance in

Euclidean n-Space

We define the Euclidean norm (or Euclidean length) of

a vector u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) in Rn by

u (u u)

u12 u 22 ... u n2

Similarly, the Euclidean distance between the points

u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) and v=(v1 , v2 ,,vn) in Rn is defined by

d (u, v ) u v (u1 v1 ) 2 (u2 v2 ) 2 ... (un vn ) 2

Example 3
Finding Norm and Distance

If u=(1,3,-2,7) and v=(0,7,2,2), then in the

Euclidean space R4
u (1) 2 (3) 2 ( 2) 2 (7) 2 63 3 7
and
d (u, v ) (1 0) 2 (3 7) 2 (2 2) 2 (7 2) 2

Theorem 4.1.3
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality in
Rn

If u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) and v=(v1 , v2 ,,vn) are

vectors in Rn, then

uv u v

Theorem 4.1.4
Properties of Length in Rn

If u and v are vectors in Rn and k is any

scalar, then
(a) u 0
(b) u 0 if and only if u 0
(c) ku k u
(d) u v u v (Triangle inequality)

Theorem 4.1.5
Properties of Distance in Rn

If u, v, and w are vectors in Rn and k is any

scalar, then:
(a) d (u, v) 0
(b) d (u, v ) 0 if and only if u v
(c) d (u, v) d ( v, u)
(d) d (u, v ) d (u, w ) d (w, v ) (Triangle inequality)

Theorem 4.1.6

If u, v, and w are vectors in Rn with

the Euclidean inner product, then
1
1
2
uv u v u v
4
4

Definition
Orthogonality

Two vectors u and v in Rn are called

orthogonal if uv=0

Example 4
Orthogonal Vector in R4
4

In the Euclidean space R the vectors

u (2, 3, 1, 4) and v (1, 2, 0, 1)
are orthogonal, since
u v (2)(1) (3)(2) (1)(0) (4)(1) 0

Theorem 4,1,7
Pythagorean Theorem in Rn
If u and v are orthogonal vectors in
R n which the Euclidean inner product, then
uv

u v

Alternative Notations for

Vectors in Rn (1/2)
It is often useful to write a vector u (u1 , u2 ,..., un ) in
R n in matrix notation as a row matrix or a column matrix

u1
u
2

or u u1 u2 ... un

un

uv

u1
u
2


un

v1
v
2


vn

u1 u1
u u
2
2

u
n
n

ku k

u1
u
2


un

ku1
ku
2

ku
n

Alternative Notations for

Vectors in Rn (2/2)
or

u v u1 u 2 ... un v1 v2 ... vn

u1 v1 u 2 v1 ... u n vn

ku k u1 u 2 ... un ku1 ku2 ... kun

produce the same results as the vector operation
u v (u1 , u2 , ... , u n ) (v1 , v2 , ..., vn )
(u1 v1, u 2 v2 , ..., u n vn )

A Matrix Formula for the Dot

Product(1/2)
If we use column matrix notation for the vectors

u1
u
2


un

and v

v1
v
2


vn

v Tu v1 v2 ... vn

u1
u
2


un

u1v1 u 2 v2 ... u n vn

u v u v

Thus, for vectors in column matrix notation we have the following

formula for the Euclidean inner product
u v v Tu

(7)

A Matrix Formula for the Dot

Product(2/2)
If A is a n n matrix, then it follows form
formula (7) and properties of the transpose
that
Au v vT (Au) ( vT A)u ( AT v)T u u A T v
u Av ( Av)T u ( vT AT )u vT ( AT u) AT u v
Au v u AT v

(8)

u Av AT u v

(9)

Example 5
T
Verifying ThatAu v u A v
Suppose that
1 2
A 2
4
1
0

3
1 ,
1

1
u 2
4

2
v 0
5

Then
1 2
Au 2
4
1
0

3 1
7
1 2 10
5
1 4
1 2 1 2
7
AT v 2 4
0 0 4
3 1
1
1 5
Au v 7( 2) 10(0) 5(5) 11

u AT v (1)(7) 2(4) 4(1) 11

A Dot Product View of

Matrix Multiplication (1/2)

If A aij is an m r matrix and B bij is an r n matrix,

then the ijth entry of AB is
ai1b1 j ai 2b2 j ... air brj
Which is the dot product of the ith row vector of A
ai1 ai 2 ... air
and the jth column vector of B
b1 j

b2 j

brj

A Dot Product View of

Matrix Multiplication (2/2)
Thus, if the row vectors of A are r1,r2 ,..., rm and the column vectors of B are
c1,c 2 ,..., c n , then the matrix product AB can be expressed as
r1 c1 r1 c 2 r1 c n
r c r c r c
2
n
AB 2 1 2 2

c
r

c
m
n
m 1 m 2
A linear system Ax b can be expressed in dot product form as
r1 x
r x
2

b1
b
2

(10)

(11)

x
m bm
where r1,r2 ,..., rm are the row vectors of A, and b1 , b2 ,..., bm are the entries of b

Example 6
A Linear System Written in Dot
Product Form
The following is an example of a linear system expressed from (11)

System

3x1 4 x2 x3 1
2 x1 7 x2 4 x3 5
x1 5 x2 8 x3 0

Dot Product Form

(3,4,1) ( x1 , x2 , x 3 ) 1
(2,7,4) ( x , x , x ) 5
1
2
3

(1,5,8) ( x1 , x2 , x 3 ) 0

4.2 Linear Transformations

From Rn to Rm

Functions from Rn to R
Formula

f (x)

f ( x, y )

f ( x, y , z )
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )

Example

f ( x) x

f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2

f ( x, y , z ) x 2
y2 z2

f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
x12 x22 ... xn2

Classification

Description

Real-valued
Function
function of a real from R to
variable
R
Real-valued
function of two
real variable

Function
from R2 to
R

Real-valued
function of three
real variable

Function
from R3 to
R

Real-valued
Function
function of n real from Rn to
variable
R

Functions from Rn to Rm
(1/2)

If the domain of a function f is Rn and the

codomain is Rm, then f is called a map or
transformation from Rn to Rm , and we say
that the function f maps Rn into Rm. We
m
Rn
denote this
byRwriting f :
n
m
R

R
transformation f :

In the case where m=n the

is called an operator on Rn

Functions from Rn to Rm
(2/2)

Suppose that f1,f2,,fm are real-valued functions of

n real variables, say
w1=f1 (x1,x2,,xn)
w2=f2 (x1,x2,,xn)

wm=fm (x1,x2,,xn)

These m equations assign a unique point (w1,w2,

,wm) in Rm to each point (x1,x2,,xn) in Rn and thus
define a transformation from Rn to Rm. If we denote
n
this transformationRby
T:R m
then
T (x1,x2,,xn)= (w1,w2,,wm)

Example 1
2

A Transformation from R to R
The equations
w1 x1 x2
w2 3x1 x2
w3 x12 x22
define a transformation T:R 2 R 3 .
T(x1,x2 ) ( x1 x2 ,3x1 x2 , x12 x22 )
Thus, for example, T (1,2) (1,6,3)

Linear Transformations from R to R

The transformationT R n R m
define by those equations is
called a linear transformation ( or a linear operator if m=n ).
R R
Thus, a linearT transformation
is defined by
equations of the form
or in matrix notation
n

w1 a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn

w2 a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn

wm am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn

a11 a12 a13

a a a
23
21 22

w
a
a

a
m m1 m 2
m3
or more briefly by w Ax
w1
w
2

The matrix A=[aij] is called the standard matrix

for the linear transformation T, and T is called
multiplication by A

Example 2
A Linear Transformation from R4
to R3
The linear transformation T:R 4 R 3 defined by the equations
w1 2 x1 3x2 x3 5 x4
w2 4 x1 x2 2 x3 x4

(5)

w3 5 x1 x2 4 x3
can be expressed in matrix form as

the standard matrix for T is

x1
2 3 1 5
w1 2 3 1 5
x
w 4 1 2 1 2
(6)
A 4 1 2 1
2
x
w3 5 1 4 0 3
5 1 4 0
x4
The image of a point (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) can be computed dorectly from

equations (5) or from (6) by matrix multiplication. For example, if

(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) (1,3,0,2), then substituting in (5) yields w 1 1, w 2 3, w 3 8
1
w1 2 3 1 5

3

w2 4 1 2 1
0
w3 5 1 4 0

2

3
8

Some Notational Matters

T Rn Rm
We denote the linear transformation
Thus,

TAby
Rn Rm

TA (x) Ax

The vectorx is expressed as a column matrix.

We will denote the standard matrix for T by the
symbol [T].
T ( x) [T ]x
Occasionally, the two notations for standard matrix
will be mixed, in which case we have the relationship
[TA ] A

Example 3
Zero Transformation
from Rn to Rm
If 0 is the m n zero matrix and 0 is the zero vector in R n , then
for every vector x in R n
T0 (x) 0x 0
so multiplication by zero maps every vector in R n into the zero
vector in R m . We call T0 the zero transformation from R n to R m .
Sometimes the zero transformation is denoted by 0.

Example 4
Identity Operator on Rn
If I is the n n identity, then for every vector x in R n
TI (x) Ix x
so multiplication by I maps every vector in R n into itself.
We call TI the identity operator on R n

Reflection Operators

In general, operators on R2 and R3 that

map each vector into its symmetric
image about some line or plane are
called reflection operators. Such
operators are linear.
Tables 2 and 3 list some of the common
reflection operators

Table 2

Table 3

Projection Operators

In general, a projection operator (or

more precisely an orthogonal projection
operator ) on R2 or R3 is any operator
that maps each vector into its
orthogonal projection on a line or plane
through the origin. It can be shown that
operators are linear.
Some of the basic projection operators
on R2 and R3 are listed in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4

Table 5

Rotation Operators (1/2)

An operator that rotate each

vector in R2 through a fixed
angle is called a rotation
operator on R2. Table 6 gives
formulas for the rotation
operator on R2.
Consider the rotation
operator that rotates each
vector counterclockwise
through a fixed angle . To

find equations relating and

T (x)
x bew the
,let
positive
x
x
-axis to ,and let r be the
x
common length of and
w
(figure
4.2.4)

Rotation Operators (2/2)

Then from basic trigonometry
x r cos , y r sin
w1 r cos( ),

w2 r sin( )

(14)
(15)

Using trigonometrix identities on (15) yields,

w1 rcos cosr sin sin
w2 rsin cos r cos sin
and substituting (14) yields w1 xcos y sin
w2 xsin y cos

The standard matrix for T

cos
[T ]
sin

sin
cos

(16)

Table 6

Example 5
Rotation
If each vector in R 2 is rotated through an angle of ( 30), then the image w of a vector
6
x

is

cos

sin

3
x

6
2

cos y 1
6
2

sin

For example, the image of the vector

1
x is w

3 1

2
1 3

3 x 1 y
x

2
2
2
y

3 1 x 3 y
2
2
2

A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(1/3)

A Rotation of Vectors in R3 is usually described

in relation to a ray emanating from the origin,
called the axis of rotation. As a vector
revolves around the axis of rotation it sweeps
out some portion of a cone (figure 4.2.5a).
The angle of rotation is described as
clockwise or counterclockwise in relation
to a viewpoint that is along the axis of
rotation looking toward the origin.

For example, in figure 4.2.5a , angles are

positive if they are generated by
counterclockwise rotations and negative if
they are generated by clockwise.

The most common way of describing a

general axis of rotation is to specify a nonzero
vector u that runs along the axis of rotation
and has its initial point at the origin. The
counterclockwise direction for a rotation about
its axis can be determined by a right-hand
rule (Figure 4.2.5 b)

A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(2/3)

A rotation operator on R3 is a linear operator

that rotates each vector in R3 about some
a fixed angle .
rotation axis through

In table 7 we have described the rotation

operators on R3 whose axes of rotation are
positive coordinate axes.

Table 7

A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(3/3)

We note that the standard matrix for a

through an angle about
counterclockwise rotation
an axis in R3, which is determined by
u an
(a,arbitrary
b, c)
unit vector
that has its initial point at the
origin, is
ab(1 cos ) c sin

ac(1 cos ) b sin

ab(1 cos ) c sin

ac(1 cos ) b sin

b (1 cos ) cos

bc(1 cos ) a sin

a 2 (1 cos ) cos

bc(1 cos ) a sin

c 2 (1 cos ) cos

Dilation and Contraction

Operators

If k is a nonnegative scalar, the operator

k
on R2 or R3 is called a contraction with
factor
k
k 1
0 k 1 if
and a dilation with factor
if
.

Table 8 and 9 list the dilation and

contraction operators on R2 and R3

Table 8

Table 9

Compositions of Linear
Transformations
If TA R n R k and TB R k R m are linear transformations, then for
each x in R n one can first compute TA (x), which is a vector in R k , and
then one can compute TB (TA (x)), which is a vector in R m . Thus, the
application of TA followed by TB produces a transformation from R m to
R n . This transformation is called the composition of TB with TA and is
denoted by TB TA (read "TB circle TA " ). Thus
(TB TA )(x) TB (TA (x))

(18)

The composition TB TA is linear since

(TB TA )(x) TB (TA (x)) B ( Ax) ( BA)x

(19)

TB TA TBA

(20)

There is an alternative form of formula (20) :

[T2 T1 ] [T2 ][T1 ]

(21)

Example 6
Composition of Two
Rotations(1/2)

Let T1 : R 2 R 2 and T2 : R R
be linear operators that
1
rotate vectors through the
angle
,respective.
2 and
Thus the operation
2

(T2 T1 )(x) (T2 (T1 (x))

first rotatesx through the

angle1 , then rotatesT1 (x)
through the angle 2 . It
follows that the net effect
Tof
2 T1
is to rotate each 1 2
vector in R2 through the
angle
(figure 4.2.7)

Example 6
Composition of Two
Rotations(2/2)
Thus, the standard matrices for these linear operators are
cos 1 sin 1
cos 2 sin 2
[T1 ]
[T2 ]
,
sin

cos

cos 2
1
1

sin 2
cos(1 2 ) sin(1 2 )
[T2 T1 ]
cos(1 2 )
sin(1 2 )
These matrices should satisfy (21).
cos 2 sin 2
[T2 ][T1 ]
cos 2
sin 2

cos 1 sin 1
sin
cos 1
1

cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 sin 1

sin 2 cos 1 cos 2 sin 1

cos(1 2 ) sin(1 2 )
cos(1 2 )
sin(1 2 )

[T2 T1 ]

(cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 cos 1 )

sin 2 sin 1 cos 2 cos 1

Example 7
Composition Is Not
Commutative(1/2)

LetT1 : R 2 R 2 be the
reflection operator about
2
T2 : R
R2
x
the yline
,and
let
be the orthogonal
y
projection
on the -axis.
Figure 4.2.8 illustrates T1 T2
T2 T1
graphically
that
and
x effect on a
have different
vector . This same
conclusion can be reached
T2
by showingT1that the
standard matrices for
and
do not commute:

Example 7
Composition Is Not
Commutative(2/2)
0 1
T1 T2 [T1 ][T2 ]
1 0
0 1
T2 T1 [T2 ][T1 ]
0 0
so T1 T2 T2 T1

0 1
0 1
0 0 0 0

0 1
0 0
1 0 1 0

Example 8
Composition of Two
Reflections(1/2)

Let T1 : R 2 R 2be the reflection about the x -axis, and letT2 : R 2 R 2

be the reflection about they -axis. In this caseT1 T2 andT2 T1
are the same; both map each vector
x ( x, y ) into negative
x ( x, y )(Figure 4.2.9)
(T1 T2 )( x, y ) T1 ( x, y ) ( x, y )
(T2 T1 )( x, y ) T2 ( x, y ) ( x, y )

Example 8
Composition of Two
Reflections(2/2)

T2 T1
The equalityT1 T2 and
can also be deduced by
T1
T2 for
showing that the standard matrices
and
commute
1 0 1 0
1 0

[T1 T2 ] [T1 ][T2 ]

1
1 0
[T2 T1 ] [T2 ][T1 ]

0 1

0 1 0

1 0
1

0
0 1

1
0
1

T ( x) x

The operator
on R2 or R3 is called the reflection
about the origin. As the computations above show, the
standard matrix for this operator on R2 is
1 0

0 1

Compositions of Three or
More Linear
Transformations

Compositions can be defined for three or more linear

transformations. For example, consider the linear
transformations
T : Rn Rk ,
T : R k Rl ,
T : Rl R m
1

(T3 T2 T1 ) : R n R m

We define the composition

(T3 T2 T1 )x : T3 (T2 (T1 (x)))

by

It can be shown that this composition

is a linear
T3 T2 T1
transformation
thatT3the standard matrix for
T1 Tand
2
related to the standard matrices for ,
, and
[T3 T2 T1 ] [T3 ][T2 ][T1 ]

is
by

which is a generalization of (21) . If the standard matrices for

T3
T1 T2
, , and
are denoted by A, B, and C, respectively, then
we also have the following generalization of (20):
TC TB TA TCBA

Example 9
Composition of Three
Transformations(1/2)

T : R3 R3
Find the standard matrix for the linear operator
that first rotates a vector counterclockwise about the z
-axis through anangle , then reflects the resulting
vector
yz about the -plane, and then projects that vector
orthogonally
xy onto the -plane.
Solution:
The linear transformation T can be expressed as the
composition T : T T T , where T 1 is the rotation about
3
2
1
the -axis, T2 is the rotation about the
yz -plane, T3 is the
z
rotation about thexy -plane. From Tables 3,5, and 7 the
standard matrices for these linear transformations are

Example 9
Composition of Three
Transformations(2/2)
cos
[T1 ] sin
0

sin
cos
0

0
0 ,
1

1 0 0
1 0 0
[T2 ] 0 1 0 , [T3 ] 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0

Thus, from (22) the standard matrix for T is [T] [T3 ][T2 ][T1 ] , that is
1 0 0 1
[T ] 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
cos sin
sin cos

0
0

0 0 cos
1 0 sin
0 1 0
0
0
0

sin
cos
0

0
0
1

4.3 Properties of Linear

n
Transformations from R to
Rm

Definition
One-to-One Linear
transformations

A linear transformation T=Rn Rm is said

to be one-to-one if T maps distinct
vectors (points) in Rn into distinct
vectors (points) in Rm

Example 1
One-to-One Linear
Transformations

In the terminology of the

preceding definition, the
rotation operator of
Figure 4.3.1 is one-toone, but the orthogonal
projection operator of
Figure 4.3.2 is not

Theorem 4.3.1
Equivalent Statements

If A is an nxn matrix and TA: RnRn is

multiplication by A, then the
following statements are
equivalent.
(a) A is invertible
(b) The range of TA is Rn
(c) TA is one-to-one

Example 2
Applying Theorem 4.3.1

In Example 1 we observed that the rotation operator T: R2R2

illustrated in Figure 4.3.1 is one-to-one. It follows from
Theorem 4.3.1 that the range of T must be all of R2 and that
the standard matrix for T must be invertible. To show that the
range of T is all of R2, we must show that every vector w in R2
is the image of some vector x under T. But this is clearly so,
angle since the
vector x obtained by rotating w through the
maps into w when rotated through the angle . Moreover, from
Table 6 of Section 4.2, the
cos standard
sin matrix for T is
[T ]

sin

cos

Which is invertible, since

cos sin
det
cos 2 sin 2 1 0
sin
cos

Example 3
Applying Theorem 4.3.1

In Example 1 we observed that the projection operator T:

R3R3 illustrated in Figure 4.3.2 is not one-to-one. It follows
from Theorem 4.3.1 that the range of T is not all of R3 and the
standard matrix for T is not invertible. To show that the range
of T is not all of R3, we must find a vector w in R3 that is not the
image of any vector x under T. But any vector w outside of the
xy-plane has this property, since all images under T lie in the
xy-plane. Moreover, from Table 5 of Section 4.2, the standard
matrix for T is
1 0 0
[T ] 0 1 0
0 0 0
which is not invertible, since det[T]=0

Inverse of a One-to-One
Linear Operator(1/2)

If TA=Rn Rn is a one-to-one linear operator, then from

n
n
T

R
A
Theorem 4.3.1 the matrix A is invertible. Thus,
is itself a linear operator; it is called the inverse
TA1 TA and
of TA. The linear operators
cancel the effect
of one another in the sense that for all x in Rn
1

TA (TA1 (x)) AA1x Ix x

TA1 (TA (x)) A1 Ax Ix x

or equivalently,TA TA TAA TI
1

TA1 TA TA1 A TI

TA
If w is the image of x under TA, then
into x, since
1

TA1 (w ) TA1 (TA ( x)) x

maps w back

Inverse of a One-to-One
Linear Operator(2/2)

When a one-to-one linear operator on Rn is

written as T:RnRn, then the inverse of the
operator T is denoted by T-1. since the standard
matrix for T-1 is the inverse of the standard
matrix for T, we have
[T-1]=[T]-1

Example 4
Standard Matrix for T-1

Let T: R2R2 be the operator that rotates each vector in R2

through the angle ;so from Table 6 of Section 4.2

cos
[T ]
sin

sin
cos

It is evident geometrically that to undo the effect of T

one must rotate each vector in R2 through
the angle
.But this is exactly what the operator T-1 does, since the
standard matrix T-1 is
sin cos( ) sin( )
cos
[T 1 ] [T ]1

cos sin( )
cos( )
sin

,which is identical to (2) except that

is replaced by

Example 5
Finding T-1 (1/2)

Show that the linear operator T: R2R2 defined by the

equations
w1=2x1+ x2
w2=3x1+4x2
is one-to-one, and find T-1(w1, w2)

Solution:
The matrix form of
w1 2
w 3
2

these equations is
1 x1
4 x2

so the standard matrix for T is

2 1
[T ]

3 4

Example 5
Finding T-1 (2/2)

This matrix is invertible (so T is one-to-one) and the

standard matrix for T-1 is
1
4
1

[T ] [T ]

Thus,

w
[T 1 ] 1
w2

4
5
3

5
3

2
5

1
1
4

w1 w2

5 w1
5
5

2 w2 3
2
w w
5 1 5 2
5

from which we conclude that

T 1 ( w1 , w2 ) (

4
1
3
2
w1 w2 , w1 w2 )
5
5
5
5

Theorem 4.3.2
Properties of Linear
Transformations

A T: RnRm is linear if and only if the following

relationships hold for all vectors u and v in Rn
and every scalar c
(a) T(u+v) = T(u) + T(v)
(b) T(cu) = cT(u)

Theorem 4.3.3

If T: RnRm is a linear transformation, and e1, e2,

, en are the standard basis vectors for Rn, then
the standard matrix for T is
[T]=[T(e1)|T(e2)||T(en)]

(6)

Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(1/3)

Let l be the line in the xy-plane

that passes through the origin
and makes anangle with the
0 where

positive x-axis,
. As illustrated in Figure
4.3.5a, let T: R2R2 be a linear
operator that maps each
vector into orthogonal
projection on l.
(a) Find the standard matrix
for T
(b) Find the orthogonal
of6 the vector
projection
Figure 4.3.5
x=(1,5) onto the line through
the origin that makes an
angle of
with
Solution
(a): From
(6)the
positive x-axis
[T]=[T(e1)|T(e2)]
where e1 and e2 are the standard basis vectors for R2. We

0 where

consider the case

; the case
where
is
2
2
similar.

Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(2/3)

Referring to Figure 4,3,5b,

T (e1 ) cos
we have
, so
T (e1 ) cos
cos 2
T (e1 )

T
(
e
)
sin

sin

cos

and referring to Figure

T (ehave
4.3.5c, we
2 ) sin
so

T (e 2 ) cos
sin cos
T (e 2 )

2
T
(
e
)
sin

sin

thus, the standard

matrix for
cos 2 sin cos
T is T

2
sin cos

sin

Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(3/3)

Solution (b):
Sincesin 6 1 2 and cos 6 3 2 , it follows from part (a) that
the standard matrix for this projection operator is

3 4

[T ]

3 4

3 4 1 4

thus,
1
T
5

3 4

3 4

3 4 1 4

or in horizontal notation

1
5

35 3

3 5

35 3 3 5

,
4
4

T 1,5

Definition

If T: RnRn is a linear operator, then a scalar

is
called an eigenvalue of T if there is a nonzero x in Rn
such that
T ( x) x

(7)

Those nonzero vectors x that satisfy this equation

are called the eigenvectors of T corresponding to

Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(1/3)

Let T: R2R2 be the linear operator that rotates each vector

through
that unless is
an angle . It is evident geometrically

a multiple of , then T does not map any nonzero vector x

no real
onto the same line as x; consequently, T has

eigenvalues.
But if is a multiple of ,then every nonzero
vector x is mapped onto the same line as x, so every nonzero
vector is an eigenvector of T. Let us verify these geometric
observations algebraically.cos
The
standard
sin matrix for T is

A
cos
sin
As discussed in Section 2.3, the eigenvalues of this matrix are
equation
cos
sin
the solutions of the character
det(I A)
sin
cos

Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear Operator(2/

That is,

( cos ) 2 sin 2 0

, then
sin 0
But if is not a multiple of
, so this equation

has no real solution

for and consequently A has no real
If issinamultiple
0
cos 1
cos
either
1
eigenvectors.
of , then
and
sin 0
or
, depending onthe particular multiple
1case where
1) 2 0
of cos
.In the
and
,the(
characteristic
equation
(8) becomes
, so
1
is the only eigenvalue
1 0 of A. In the case the matrix A is
A

0 1
2

Thus, for all x in R2

T (x) Ax Ix x

Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(3/3)

So T maps every vector to itself, and hence to the same

cos 1and
where
0
line. In the sin
case
, the
2

1
( 1) equation
0
characteristic
(8) becomes
, so that
is the only eigenvalue of A. In this case the matrix A is

1 0
I

0 1

A
Thus, for all x in R2 ,

T (x) Ax Ix x
so T maps every vector to its negative, and hence to the
same line as x.

Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(1/3)

Let T: R3R3 be the orthogonal projection on xy-plane. Vectors in

the xy-plane are mapped into themselves under T, so each
nonzero vector in the xy-plane is an eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue
.Every vector x along the z-axis is mapped into

1
0 under T, which is on the same line as x, so every nonzero
vector on the z-axis is an eigenvector corresponding to theei
genvalue
. Vectors not in the xy-plane or along the z-axis are
0
mapped into scalar multiples of themselves, so there are no
other eigenvectors or eigenvalues.
To verify these geometric observations algebraically, recall from
Table 5 of Section 4.3 that the standard matrix for T is

1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 0

Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(2/3)

The characteristic equation of A is

1 0
0
det(I A) 0 1 0 0 or ( 1) 2 0
0
0

which has the solutions

and
anticipated above.
1
0
As discussed in Section 2.3, the eigenvectors of the matrix A
corresponding to an eigenvalue are the nonzero solutions of

1 0
0 1

0 x1
0 x2
x3

1 0
0 1

0 0

0
0
0

x1
x
2
x3

0
0
0

0
, this system
is 0

If

0
0

(9)

Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(3/3)

which has the solutions x1=0,x2=0,x3=t (verify), or in matrix

form
x1 0
x 0
2
x3 t
1
As anticipated, these
0 0the

0 are
x1 vectors
0 along the z-axis. If
then system (9) is 0 0 0 x 0

0 0 1 x3

which has the solutiona

x1 x1=s
s , x2=t , x3=0 , or in matrix form,
x
2
x3

t
0

As anticipates, these are vectors in xy-plane

Theorem 4.3.4
Equivalent Statements

If A is an nxn matrix, and if TA: RnRn is multiplication by

A , then the following are equivalent,
(a) A is invertible
(b) Ax=0 has only the trivial solution
(c) The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices
(e) Ax=b is consistent for every nx1 matrix b
(f) Ax=b has exactly one solution for every nx1 matrix b
(g) det( A) 0
(h) The range of TA is Rn
(i) TA is one-to-one