Unit IV

Algebraic Structures

Algebraic systems
Examples and General Properties
Semi groups and monoids
Groups
Sub groups
Homomorphism
Isomorphism

Binary and n-ary operations

n-ary operation on nonempty set S
Function from S X S X S X X S to S
(f : S X S X S X X S S).
Assigns a unique element of S to every ordered n-tuple of
elements of S.
n order of the operation.
Unary operation on nonempty set S
Assigns a unique element of S to every element of S.
n-ary operation of order 1.
Binary operation on nonempty set S (*)
Function from S X S to S (f : S X S S).
Assigns a unique element of S to every ordered pair of elements (a,
b) of S.
n-ary operation of order 2.
a*b
S is closed under the binary operation *.

Examples

Set of all integers (Z) is closed under addition(+),

subtraction() and multiplication (*) operations.

Set of all real numbers (R) is closed under addition(+),

subtraction() and multiplication(*) operations.

Properties of Binary Operations

Let * and be binary operations on nonempty set S.

Commutative
If a * b = b * a, for every a, b S.

Associative
If a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c, for every a, b, c S.

Idempotent
If a * a = a, for all a S.

Distributive
a * (b c) = (a * b) (a * c)
(a b) * c) = (a * c) (b * c), for all a, b, c S.

Examples
Addition and multiplication operations are commutative and
associative on Z.
a + b = b + a, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a x b = b x a, a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c
Subtraction operation is neither commutative nor associative
on Z.
a b b a, a (b c) (a b) c
Multiplication operation is distributive over the addition
operation on Z.
a x (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c)
(a + b) x c = (a x c) + (b x c)
Addition operation is not distributive over the multiplication
operation on Z.
a + (b x c) (a + b) x (a + c)
(a x b) + c (a + c) x (b + c)

Let the binary operation * is defined on the set

S = {a, b, c, d} as given in the operation table.

*
a
b
c
d

a
a
d
c
d

b
c
a
d
b

c
b
b
a
a

d
d
c
b
c

Element a * b is displayed in the (i, j) position.

b*c=b
c*b=d
Operation * is not commutative.
b * (c * d) = b * b = a
(b * c) * d = b * d = c
Operation * is not associative.

Algebraic Systems Examples and general properties

Algebraic system / Algebra / Algebraic Structure
Some n-ary operations on nonempty set S.
<S, *1, *2, , *k>

Examples:
<Z, +, x>
<P(S), , >

Identity (e)
Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
el * x = x * er = x for every x in S.

Left Identity (e1)

el * x = x for every x in S.

Right Identity (er)

x * er = x for every x in S.

Inverse (x)
Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
xl * a = a * xr = e.
a is invertible.

Left Inverse (x1)

Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
xl * a = e.
a is left-invertible.

Right Inverse (xr)

Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
a * xr = e.
a is right-invertible.

Standard Algebraic Structures

Ring
Let <R, +, .> be an algebraic structure for a nonempty set R and
two binary operations + and . defined on it.
1) The operation + is commutative and associative.
a + b = b + a, for all a, b R.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, for all a, b, c R.
2) There exists the identity element 0 in R w.r.t. +.
a + 0 = 0 + a = a, for every a R.
3) Every element in R is invertible w.r.t. +.
With every a R there exists in R its inverse element,
denoted by (a).
a + (a) = (a) + a = 0.

4) The operation . is associative.

a . ( b. c) = (a . b) . c for all a, b, c R.

5) The operation . is distributive over the operation + in

R.
a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(a + b) . c = (a . c) + (b . c) for all a, b, c R.

Zero element of the ring

Identity element w.r.t. + the operation + (0).

Negative of a
Inverse (a) w.r.t. + of a R.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.
2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.
3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.
4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Commutative Ring
If the operations +, . are commutative in a ring <R, +, .>.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.
2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations +
and x.
3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.
4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations +
and x.

Ring with Unity

If the operations +, . have identity elements in a ring <R, +, .>.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.
2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.
3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.
4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Integral Domain
a . b = 0 a = 0 or b = 0 for a commutative ring with unity <R, +, .>.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.
2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.
3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.
4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Field
If a ring <R, +, .>
is commutative
has the unity
every nonzero element of R has the inverse under the . operation.
Commutative ring with unity in which every nonzero element has a
multiplicative inverse.

Examples
1. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.
2. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.
3. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.
4. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x is not a
field as Z does not contain multiplicative inverses of all its nonzero
elements.

Exercises
1) Let S = {0, 1} and the operations + and . on s be defined by the
following tables:

+
0
1

0
0
1

1
1
0

.
0
1

0
0
0

1
0
1

Show that <S, +, .> is a commutative ring with unity.

2) Let S = {a, b, c, d} and the operations + and . on s be defined

by the following tables:

+
a
b
c
d

a
a
b
c
d

b
b
a
d
c

c
c
d
b
a

d
d
c
a
b

Show that <S, +, .> is a ring.

.
a
b
c
d

a
a
a
a
a

b
a
a
b
a

c
a
b
c
d

d
a
a
d
a

Semigroups and Monoids

Semigroups
An algebraic system <S, *> consisting of a nonempty set S and an
associative binary operation * defined on S.

Examples
1. <Z, +>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation +.
2. <Z, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation x.
3. <Z+, +>, Z+ is a set of positive integers and binary operation +.
4. <Z, >, Z is a set of integers and binary operation is not a
semigroup.

Commutative / Abelian Semigroups

An algebraic system <S, *> consisting of a nonempty set S and an
associative and a commutative binary operations * defined on S.

Examples
1. <Z, +>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation +.
2. <Z, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation x.
3. <Z+, +>, Z+ is a set of positive integers and binary operation +.

Monoid
A semigroup with the identity element e w.r.t. *.

Examples
1. <Z, +> with the identity element 0.
2. <Z, x> with the identity element 1.
3. <P(S), > with the identity element .
4. <P(S), > with the identity element S.

Exercises
Consider the binary operation * on a set A = {a, b} is defined
through a multiplication table. Determine whether <A, *> is a
semigroup or a monoid or neither.
*

Consider the binary operation * on a set A = {a, b} is defined

through a multiplication table. Determine whether <A, *> is a
semigroup or a monoid or neither.
*

In each of the following, indicate whether the given set forms a

semigroup or a monoid under the given operation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The set of all positive integers, with a * b = maximum of a and

b.
The set of all even integers on which the operation * is defined
by a * b = ab / 2.
The set A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} on which the operation * is
defined by a * b = LCM of a and b.
The set Q of all rational nos. on which the operation * is
defined by a * b = a b + ab.
The product set Q x q, where Q is the set of all rational nos. on
which the operation * is defined by (a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, ad + b).

Groups and Subgroups

Group (G)
Let a nonempty set G be closed under *.
Algebraic system <G, *> with the following conditions:
1. (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) for all a, b, c G (Associative).
2. There is an element e G such that a * e = e * a = a, for all a G (G
contains identity element e under *).
3. For every a G, there is an element a G such that a * a = a * a = e
(Every element a of G is invertible under * with a as an inverse).

Every group is a monoid and therefore a semigroup.

a2 = a * a
ab = a * b

Abelian / Commutative Group

If ab = ba for all a, b G.

Infinite Group
A group G on a infinite set G.

Examples
1. <Z, +>
Associative.
Identity element 0.
Inverse is a.
Infinite group.
Abelian group (a + b = b + a. for all a, b Z).

2. Set of all non-zero rational or real or complex nos.

under multiplication.
Identity element 1.
Inverse is 1/a.
Infinite abelian group.
3. Set of all n x n non-singular matrices under matrix
multiplication.
Identity element is unit matrix of order n.
Infinite group.
Not abelian
(matrix multiplication is not commutative).

Subgroups
Let <G, *> be a group and H be a nonempty subset of
G. Then <H, *> is a subgroup of G if <H, *> itself is a
group.
Examples
1. The set of all even integers forms a subgroup of
the group of all integers under usual addition.
2. The set of all nonzero rational nos. forms a
subgroup of the group of all nonzero real nos. under
usual multiplication.

Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism

Let G1 and G2 be two groups and f be a function from
G1 to G2. The f is called a homomorphism from G1
to G2 if f(ab) = f(a)f(b), for all a, b G1.
The function f : G1 G2 is called an isomorphism
from G1 onto G2 if
a. f is a homomorphism from G1 to G2.
b. f is one-to-one and onto.
The groups G1 and G2 are said to be isomorphic if
there is an isomorphism from G1 onto G2.

Example
Consider the groups <R, +> and <R+, x>.
Define the function f : R R+ by f(x) = ex for all x R.
Then, for all a, b R,
We have f(a + b) = ea+b = eaeb = f(a)f(b).
Hence f is homomorphism.
Take any c R+.
Then log c R and f(log c) = elog c = c.
Every element in R+ has a preimage in R under f.
f is onto.
For any a, b R,
f(a) = f(b)
ea = eb
a = b.
f is one-to-one.
f is an isomorphism.