PVT Properties of Crude Oils

Petroleum is a complex mixture consisting predominantly of

hydrocarbons and containing sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and
helium as minor constituents.
The physical and chemical properties of crude oils vary
considerably and depend on the concentration of the various
types of hydrocarbons and minor constituents present.
Accurate description of physical properties of crude
oils is of a considerable importance in the fields of both
applied & theoretical sciences.

Physical properties of primary interest in petroleum

engineering studies include.
Fluid gravity
Specific gravity of the solution gas.
Oil density.
Gas solubility.
Bubble point pressure.
Oil formation volume factor.
Isothermal compressibility coefficient of under-saturated
crude oils.
Under-saturated oil properties.
Total formation volume factor.
Crude oil viscosity.
Surface tension.

Crude Oil Gravity

The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit
volume of the crude at a specified pressure and temperature.
The specific gravity of a crude oil is defined as the ratio of
the density of the oil to that of water. Both densities are
measured at 600F and atmospheric pressure:

0
o =
w
where o = density of the crude oil, lb/ft3
w = density of the water, lb/ft3

(4-1)

The density of the water is approximately 62.4 lb/ft3, or

o
o =
, 600 / 600
62.4
Although the density and specific gravity are used
extensively in the petroleum industry, the API gravity is the
preferred gravity scale.
This gravity scale is precisely related to the specific gravity
by the following expression:

141.5
API =
-131.5
o

(4-2)

Oils and gases are mixtures. Before defining them,

however, let us make a brief review of the thermodynamics.
Fluids may be pure substances, in other words
consisting of identical molecules, or mixtures, made up of
different molecules
Their behavior is different in each situation, because
the molecular interactions are different.
The variance V indicates the number of parameters
conditioning the behavior of a fluid, as a function of the
number of independent components C and the number of
phases . According to Gibbs rule:

V = C + 2
For a pure substance (C = 1), if it is a one-phase
substance ( = 1), its behavior depends on two parameters:
the volume occupied by a given mass depends on the
pressure and the temperature (V = 2).
If it is a two phase substance ( = 2), the behavior
depends only on one parameter: the pressure is a function of
the temperature alone and not of the volumes of the two
phases (for a three phase substance, only one temperature
and one pressure are possible, V = 0).

For a mixture of N components, the number of parameters

conditioning the behavior is the same as above plus (N 1).
This behavior is hence much more complex.
We shall rapidly show the behavior of pure substances
on pressure/specific volume and pressure/temperature
diagrams, and then examine the behavior of mixtures in great
details, on the same diagrams.

Pure Substances
Pressure/Specific Volume Diagram (Clapeyron Diagram):
Starting with a pressure and temperature such that the
pure substance is in the liquid state (point A), if the volume
available to the substance is increased very slowly (at
constant temperature), the following is observed in
succession:

Fig. 3.1

a) A rapid drop in pressure as long as the pure substance

remains in the liquid phase: liquids are relatively
incompressible.
b) The appearance of a vapor phase (point B in fig. 3.1):
bubble point.
c) An increase in the vapor phase and a decrease in the
liquid phase, with pressure remaining constant.
d) The disappearance of the last drop of liquid (point R in
fig. 3.1) dew point.
e) A relatively slow decrease in pressure: vapors are
compressible.

This experiment can be repeated at temperatures

lower and higher than T, up to maximum temperature TC, the
critical temperature, above which the pure substance is
always one-phase irrespective of the pressure: The supercritical state called gas.
The different bubble points form the bubble-point
curve, and the different dew points the dew-point curve.
The combination of these two curves is the saturation
curve
The critical isotherm is tangent to the saturation curve
at the point of intersection of the bubble and dew point
curves, the critical point (PC, TC) along a tangent parallel to
axis v.

Any point in the two-phase zone represents a given

distribution of the pure substance between the liquid and
vapor phases:

BM
Massofvapor
=
BR Massofpuresubs tan ce
The series of points corresponding to the same distribution
form an equal concentration curve, which terminates in the
critical points.

Pressure/Temperature Diagram (Fig. 3.2)

If the bubble and dew points are plotted in P and T
coordinates, the points merge for each temperature, because
the bubble and dew point pressures are the same.
The two phase state is hence also represented by the
saturation curve which terminates in the critical point (PC,
TC).
The liquid/vapor equilibrium pressure is called the
vapor pressure curve. It depends only on the temperature
and not on the quantities of the two phases present.

Fig. 3.2

Mixtures
Mixtures consist of several types of molecules.
Pressure/Specific Volume Diagram (Fig. 3.3)
T1 < TC < T2 < TCC
As above, let us start with a pressure and a
temperature T1 (point A) such that the mixture is in the
liquid state, and let us slowly increase the volume available
to it. The following can be observed:

Fig. 3.3

(a) A rapid decrease in pressure in the liquid phase.

(b) The appearance of a vapor phase (point B1): bubble point.
(c) An increase in the vapor phase and a decrease in the
liquid phase: the pressure decreases, but less rapidly than
with the liquid phase alone.
(d) Disappearance of the last drop of liquid at the dew point
R1.
(e) The entire mixture is in the vapor state: the pressure
decreases.

This behavior is observed up to the critical temperature

TC. Above this point, as long as the temperature remains
below the critical condensation temperature TCC, the
following is observed at constant temperature T2 (and slowly
increasing volume):
(a)A gas phase (supercritical state): the pressure falls.
(b) The appearance of a liquid phase at the retrograde dew
point R2.
(c) An increase in the liquid phase to a peak, followed by its
decrease: the pressure falls.

(d) Disappearance of the last drop of liquid at the dew point

R2.
(e) The entire mixture is in the gas state: the pressure falls.
Above the critical condensation temperature
(cricondentherm), the mixture is always in the gas state.

Pressure/Temperature Diagram (Fig. 3.4)

As for pure substances, the bubble and dew points
for a mixture are shown on the P/T diagram.
At a given temperature, the bubble and dew point
pressures are not the same.
The bubble and dew point curves are hence distinct.
The figure shows equal composition curves in the liquid
phase (0% = dew point curve, 100% = bubble point curve).

Fig. 3.4

The zone corresponding to retrograde phenomena is

cross-hatched. It corresponds to a condensation occurring by
isothermal pressure drop. Its boundary is the locus of the
condensation maxima for each temperature.

Different Types of Reservoirs

Fig. 3.5 gives a classification of hydrocarbon
reservoirs on a P/T diagram.
A.Oil Reservoirs (Fig. 3.5)
The reservoir temperature is lower than the critical
temperature of the mixture contained therein.

If the hydrocarbons are initially one phase, i.e. under

saturated oil reservoirs, and if the same mixture exists
throughout the reservoir, an important point is the one at
which a gas phase appears (bubble point, or saturation
pressure).
From this point on, the passage available to the oil decreases,
and its viscosity also increases, decreasing the productivity
of the wells.
If a hydrocarbon liquid phase and a vapor phase are
initially in equilibrium, i.e. oil with gas cap, part of the gas
released by production can be added to the gas cap.

If the gas cap is not produced, its piston effect maintains

the pressure and recovery is better.
In this situation, the initial bubble point pressure of the
hydrocarbon liquid phase is the pressure of the gas cap.
This oil is said to be saturated.
Whether or not the oil is initially one phase, the
bubble point pressure of the oil generally decreases with
increasing depth for a given reservoir.
This means that the composition of the oil varies vertically
(slightly lighter at the top of the oil zone). In some cases,
the bubble point also varies laterally in the reservoir.

Fig. 3.5

B. Retrograde Condensate Gas Reservoirs

The reservoir temperature ranges between the critical
and critical condensation temperature of the mixture in the
reservoir (Saint Marect & Hassi R Mel reservoir).
In most cases, the initial pressure is the retrograde dew
point pressure (not at Saint Marcet).
This means that production causes a very rapid condensation
of hydrocarbons in the reservoir. As the condensed products
are mainly heavy components, and since the condensed
volume does not flow because of the low saturation, the gas
produced is depleted of heavy products, i.e. condensable.

C. Gas Reservoirs One Phase in Reservoir Conditions

The reservoir temperature is higher than the critical
condensation temperature of the mixture in the reservoir
(typical examples are Lacq and Frigg).
Most of the gases yield condensates at the earths surface:
they are called wet gases.
Some of them, however, which practically consist of pure
methane and ethane, yield only gas at the earths surface:
these are dry gases.

Behavior of Oil and Gas between the Reservoir and the

Earths Surface
The oil and gas in the reservoirs yield fluids which
differ significantly in volume and in quality when they reach
the surface.
Thus light oils (richer in C1 to C4 light and
intermediate components) produce a great deal of gas at the
surface. Conversely, heavy oils produce only very little gas,
if at all (dead oils).
Dry gases yield only gas at the earths surface and,
conversely condensate gases may yield a great deal of
condensates (or casing head gasoline).

Fig. 1 Production of reservoir hydrocarbons (a) above bubble point pressure,

(b) below bubble point pressure

Control in relating surface volumes of production to

underground withdrawal is gained by defining the
following three PVT parameters which can be measured by
laboratory experiments performed on the samples of the
reservoir oil, plus its originally dissolved gas.
Rs The solution for dissolved gas oil ratio, which is the
number of standard cubic feet of gas which will
dissolve
in one stock tank barrel of oil when both are taken down to
the reservoir at prevailing reservoir
pressure and
temperature (units -scf. Gas/stb oil).

Bo

- The oil formation volume factor is the volume in

barrels occupied in the reservoir, at the prevailing
pressure and temperature, by one stock tank barrel of
oil plus its dissolved gas ( units-rb(oil+diss. Gas)/stb
oil).
Bg
- The gas formation volume factor, which is the
volume in barrel that one standard cubic foot of gas
will occupy as free gas in the reservoir at the
prevailing reservoir pressure and temperature (unitsrb
free gas/scf gas).
It should also be noted that Rs and Bo are both measured
relative to one stock tank barrel of oil, which is the basic
unit of volume used in the field.

All three parameters are strictly functions of pressure, as

shown in fig. 1 f, assuming that the reservoir temperature
remains constant during depletion.
Fig. 1c shows the situation when the reservoir pressure
fallen from its initial value pi to some lower value p, which
is still above the bubble point.
As shown in P-T diagram the only fluid in the reservoir is
under-saturated liquid oil. When this oil is produced to the
surface each stock tank barrel will yield, upon gas oil
separation, Rsi standard cubic feet of gas.
Since the oil is under-saturated with gas, which implies that
it could dissolve more if the latter were available, then the

initial value of the solution gas oil ratio must remain

constant at Rsi (scf/stb) until the pressure drops to the
bubble point, when the oil becomes saturated, as shown in
fig. 1f (b)
Fig. 1f (a) shows that Bo increases slightly as the pressure is
reduced from initial to the bubble point pressure. This effect
is simply due to liquid expansion and, since the
compressibility of the under-saturated oil in the reservoir is
low, the expansion is relatively small.

Fig. 1c. Application of PVT parameters to relate surface to reservoir

hydrocarbon volume; above bubble point pressure.

Fig. 1d. Application of PVT parameters to relate surface to reservoir

hydrocarbon volumes; below bubble point pressure.

Fig. 1 e. Producing gas oil ratio as a function of the average reservoir pressure for
a typical solution gas drive reservoir.

The producing gas oil ratio can be split into two components
as shown in the fig. 1d, i.e.
R = Rs + ( R Rs)
The first of these, Rs scf/stb, when taken down to the
reservoir with the one stb of oil, will dissolve in the oil at
the prevailing reservoir pressure to give B0 rb of oil plus
dissolved gas.
The reminder, (R Rs) scf/stb, when taken down to the
reservoir will occupy a volume
scf
rb
(R - R s )( ) Bg ( ) = (R - R s )Bg
stb
scf
(2.1)
(rb-free gas/stb)

and therefore, the total underground withdrawal of

hydrocarbons associated with the production of the one stb
of oil is

Fig. 1f. PVT parameters (Bo, Rs, and Bg) as functions of pressure,
for the analysis presented in table 2.4; (pb = 3330 psia).

Fig.2a Subsurface Sampling

Fig. 2b Subsurface collection of PVT sample

Fig. 3 Collection of a PVT sample by surface recombination

Collection of Fluid Samples

Samples of the reservoir fluid are usually collected at an
early stage in the reservoirs producing life and dispatched
to a laboratory for full PVT analysis.
There are basically two ways of collecting such samples,
either by direct subsurface sampling or by surface
recombination of the oil and gas phases.
Whichever technique is used the same basic problem
exists, and that is, to ensure that the proportion of gas to oil
in the composite sample is the same as that existing in the
reservoir.

Thus, sampling a reservoir under initial conditions, each

stock thank barrel of oil in the sample should be combined
with Rsi standard cubic feet of gas.
Subsurface sampling
This is the more direct method of sampling and is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 2b.
This method will obviously yield a representative combined
fluid sample providing that the oil is under-saturated with
gas to such a degree that the bottom hole flowing pressure
pwf, at which the sample is collected, is above the bubble
point pressure.
In this case a single phase fluid, oil plus its dissolved gas, is
flowing in the wellbore and therefore, a simple of the fluid

is bound to have the oil and gas combined in the correct

proportion.
Many reservoirs, however, are initially at bubble point
pressure and under these circumstances, irrespective of how
low the producing rate is maintained during the sampling,
the bottom hole flowing pressure pwf will be less than the
bubble point pressure pb.
In this case, there will be saturate oil and a free gas phase
flowing. There is no guarantee that the oil and gas will be
collected in the correct volume proportion in the chamber.

In sampling a gas saturated reservoir, two situations can

arise depending on the time at which the sample is
collected.
If the sample is taken very early in the producing life it is
possible that the fluid flowing into the wellbore is deficient
in gas.
This is because the initially liberated gas must build up a
certain minimum gas saturation in the reservoir pores
before it will start flowing under an imposed pressure
differential. This is so-called critical saturation is a
phenomenon common to any fluid deposited in the
reservoir.

Surface recombination sampling

In collecting fluid sample at the surface, separator volumes
of oil and gas are taken at separator conditions and
recombined to give a composite fluid sample.
The surface equipment is shown schematically in fig. 3.
The well is produced at a steady rate for a period of several
hours and the gas oil ratio is measured in scf of separator
gas per stock tank barrel of oil.
If the ratio is steady during the period of measurement the
one can feel confident that recombining the oil and gas in
the same ratio will yield a representative composite sample

of the reservoir fluid, in fact, a slight adjustment must be

made to determine the actual ratio in which the samples
should be recombined.
This is because as shown in fig. 3. the oil sample is collected
at separator pressure and temperature whereas the gas oil
ratio is measured relative to the stock tank barrel, thus the
required recombination ratio is
Required

Measured

Shrinkage

scf
scf
stb
R sep [
] = R[
] S[
]
sep.bbl
stb
sep.bbl

Determination of the Basic PVT parameters in the

Laboratory and conversion for field operating
conditions
The analysis consists of three parts:
-Flash expansion of the fluid sample to determine the
bubble point pressure;
- differential expansion of the fluid sample to determine the
basic parameters B0, Rs and Bg;
- flash expansion of fluid samples through various separator
combinations to enable the modification of laboratory
derived PVT data to match field separator conditions

The apparatus used to perform the above experiments

is the PV cell, as shown in fig. 4.
After recombining the oil and gas in the correct
proportions, the fluid is charged to the PV cell which is
maintained at constant temperature, the measured reservoir
temperature, throughout the experiments.
The cell pressure is controlled by a positive
displacement mercury pump and recorded on an accurate
pressure gauge.
The plunger movement is calibrated in terms of
volume of the mercury injected or withdrawn from the PV
cell so that vol. changes in the cell can be measured directly.

The flash and differential expansion experiments are

presented in Figs. 5a and 5b.
In the flash experiment the pressure in the PV cell is
initially raised to a value far in excess to the bubble point.
The pressure is subsequently reduced in stages, and on each
occasion the total volume vt of the cell contents is recorded.
As soon as the bubble point pressure is reached, gas is
liberated from the oil and the overall compressibility of the
system increases significantly.
Thereafter, small changes in pressure will result in large
changes in the total fluid volume contained in the PV cell.

In this manner, the flash expansion experiment can be used

to feel the bubble point.
Since the cell used is usually opaque the separate volume of
oil and gas, below bubble point pressure cannot be
measured in the experiment and therefore, only total
volumes are recorded.
In the laboratory analysis the basic unit of volume, against
which all others are compared, is the volume of saturated
oil at the bubble point, irrespective of its magnitude.
Here it will be assumed, for consistency, that this unit vol. is
one reservoir barrel of bubble point oil (1 rbb).

Fig. 4 Schematic of PV cell and associated equipment

Fig. 5 Illustrating the difference between (a)

flash expansion, & (b) differential liberation

The flash expansion can be continued to much lower

pressures although this is not usually done since the basic
PVT parameters are normally obtained from the differential
liberation experiment.
The essential data obtained from the differential liberation
experiment, performed on the same oil sample, are listed in
table 2.2.
The experiment starts at bubble point pressure since above
this pressure the flash and differential experiments are
identical.

Table 2.2
Results of isothermal differential liberation at 2000F

In contrast to the flash expansion, after each stage of the

differential liberation the total amount of gas liberated
during the latest pressure drop is removed from the PV cell
by injecting mercury at constant pressure, fig. 2.5.
Thus, after the pressure drop from 2700 to 2400 psia, table
2.2, column 2, indicates that 0.0466 volumes of gas are
withdrawn from the cell at the lower pressure and at 2000F.
These gas volumes vg are measured relative to the unit
volume of bubble point oil, as are all the relative volumes
listed in table 2.2.
After each stage the incremental vol. of liberated gas is
expanded to standard conditions and re-measured as Vg

relative vol.
Column 4 is simply cumulative amount of gas liberated
below the bubble point and is denoted by F = Vg.
Dividing values in column 3 by those in column 2 (Vg/vg)
gives the gas expansion factor E.
Knowing E, the Z-factor of the liberated gas can be
determined by explicitly solving eq. (1.25) for Z as

p Tsc 1
p
Z=
= 35.37
p sc T E
ET

and for the gas sample withdrawn at 2400 psia

2400
Z = 35.37
= 0.863
149.05 660

Finally, the relative oil volumes, vo, are measured at each

stage of depletion after removal of the liberated gas, as
listed in column 7.
The laboratory derived data presented in table 2.2 are
converted to the required field parameters, Bo, Rs and Bg, it
is first necessary to compare the physical difference
between the flash and differential liberation experiments
and decide which, if either, is suitable for describing the
separation of oil and gas in the reservoir and the production

of these volumes through the surface separator to the stock

tank.
The main difference between the two types of experiment
shown in fig 2.5 (a) and (b) is that in flash expansion no gas
is removed from the PV cell but instead remains in
equilibrium with oil.
As a result, the overall hydrocarbon composition in the cell
remains unchanged.
In the differential liberation experiment, however, at each
stage of depletion the liberated gas is physically removed
from contact with the oil and therefore, there is a continual
compositional change in the PV cell, the remaining hydro-

carbons becoming progressively richer in the heavier

compositions, and the average molecular weight thus
increasing.
If both experiments are performed isothermally, in stages,
through the same total pressure drop, then the resulting
volumes of liquid oil remaining at lowest pressure will, in
general be slightly different.
For low volatility oils, in which the dissolved gas consists
mainly of methane and ethane, the resulting oil vol. from
either exp. Are practically the same.
For higher volatility oils, containing a relatively high
proportion of the intermediate hydrocarbons such as butane

and pentane, the vols. Can be significantly different.

Generally, in this latter case, more gas escapes from solution
in the flash expansion than the differential liberation,
resulting in a smaller final oil vol. after the flash process.
In flash expansion the intermediate hydrocarbon molecules
find it somewhat easier to escape into the large gas vol. in
contact with the oil than in the case of differential liberation,
in which the vol. of liberated gas in equilibrium with the oil,
at any stage in the depletion, is significantly smaller.

The problem is, of course, which type of experiment will

provide the most realistic values of Bo, Rs and Bg, required
for relating measured surface vols. To vols. Withdrawn
from the reservoir at the current reservoir pressure and
fixed temp.
The answer is that a combination of both flash and
differential liberation is required for a adequate description
of the overall vol. changes.
It is considered that the differential liberation experiment
provides the better description of how the oil and gas
separate in the reservoir since, because of their different
flow velocities, they will not remain together in
equilibrium once the gas is liberated from oil.

The shrinkage factor cbf, listed in table 2.3, is the volume of

oil collected in the stock tank, relative to unit volume of oil
at the bubble point (stb/rbb), which is the reason for the
subscript b (bubble point). The subscript f refers to the fact
that these experiments are conducted under flash
conditions.
What is required for field use is B0 expressed in rb/stb.
In differential liberation data the corresponding parameter is
v0 (rb/rbb), that is, reservoir barrels of oil per unit barrel at
bubble point. But from the flash data it is known that one
reservoir barrel of oil, at the bubble point, when flashed
through the separator yields cbf stb.

The required field parameter B0 is

rb
v 0 rb / rb b
B0
=
stb c b f stb / rb b

Similarly, the solution gas oil ratio required in the field is R s

(scf/stb). The parameter in the differential liberation data
from which this can be obtained is F (cumulative gas vol at
sc/oil vol at pb=stb/rbb).
In fact, F, the cumulative gas liberated from oil must be
proportional to Rsif Rs (scf/stb), which is the initial solution
gas oil ratio, as determined in the flash experiment, minus
the current solution gas oil ratio at some lower pressure .

This exact relationship is

(R

si f

scf
stb
scf
1 rb b
- Rs
=F
5.615

stb
rb b
stb c b f stb

Finally, the determination of the third parameter Bg can be

obtained directly from the differential parameter E as

rb
rb
1 stb
1
Bg
=

scf E rb b 5.615 rcf

Thus the laboratory differential data can be transformed to
give the required field PVT parameters using the following
conversions.

Alternative Manner of Expressing PVT Laboratory

Analysis Results
In table 2.2 all volumes are measured relative to the unit oil
volume at the bubble point. There is, however, a more
common way of representing the results of the differential
liberation in which vols. are measured relative to the vol. of
residual oil as stock tank conditions

This vol. is obtained as the final step in the differential

liberation experiment by flashing the vol. of oil measured
at atmospheric pressure and reservoir temp., to atmospheric
pressure and 60 0F.
This final step is shown in table 2.3 in which 0.8296
relative oil vol. at 14.7 psia and 200 0F yield 0.7794
relative oil vols. At 14.7 psia and 60 0F.
This value of 0.7794 is the shrinkage factor for a unit vol.
of bubble point during differential liberation to stock tank
conditions and is denoted by Cbd.

The value of Cbd, is not on dependent any separator

conditions and therefore, relating all vols. in the
differential liberation to this value of Cbd, which is
normally referred to as residual oil vol., will provide an
alternative means of expressing the differential results.
It should be noted, however, that the magnitude of Cbd is
dependent on the number of pressure steps taken in the
differential experiment.
Therefore, the differential liberation results, in which all
volumes are measured relative to Cbd do not provide an
absolute set of data such as that obtained by relating all
volumes to the unit vol. of oil at the bubble point.

In the presentation of differential data, in which volumes

are measured relative to Cbd, the values of v0 and F in table
2.2 are replace by B0d and Rsd where
B0d = differential oil formation volume factor
(rb/stb-residual oil)
and Rsd = differential solution gas ratio (scf/stb-residual
oil)
Alternatively, by replacing Cbf in eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) by Cbd,
these parameters can be expressed as
v0
rb / rb b
B0 d =
C bd stb residual / rb b
(2.8)

and

R sd = R sid

5.616F
scf
C bd stb - residual

(2.9)

where Rsid is the initial dissolved gas relative to the residual

barrel of oil at 60 0F, and is proportional to the total gas
liberated in the differential experiment, thus
R sid

( MaximumvalueofF)
scf
=
5.615
C bd
stb - residual

and for the differential data presented in table 2.2

R sid

74.9557 5.615
=
= 540scf / stb - residualoil
0.7794

(2.10)

The majority of commercial laboratories serving the

industry would normally present the essential data in the
differential experiment (table 2.2) as shown in table 2.5

There is a danger in presenting the results of the differential

liberation experiment in this way since a great many
engineers are tempted to use the B0d and Rsd values directly
in reservoir calculation, without making the necessary
corrections to allow for the surface separator conditions.
For moderate and high volatility oils the error can be quite
significant and therefore, the reader should always make the
necessary correction to the data of table 2.5 to allow for the
field separator conditions.
The conversion can be made by expressing B0d and Rsd, in
table 2.5, in their equivalent, absolute forms of v0 and F, in
table 2.2, using eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) and thereafter, using
eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) to allow for surface separators.

Alternatively, the required field parameters can be calculated

directly as

v0
v 0 C bd
B0 bf
B0 =
=
= B0 d
C bf C bd C bf
B0 bd

(2.11)

where
v0/Cbd = B0d the differential oil formation vol. factor
measured relative to the residual oil vol. as listed in
table 2.5 (rb/stb-residual)
B0bf = 1/Cbf is the oil formation vol. factor of the bubble
point oil (rb/stb) determined by flashing the oil
through
the appropriate surface separators and is
measured
relative to the stock tank oil vol. (refer
tables 2.3 and
2.4); and

B0bd = 1/Cbd is the oil formation vol. factor of the bubble

point oil determined during the differential liberation
experiment and is measured relative to the residual
oil vol. (refer table 2.5) (rb/stb-residual).
Similarly, the required solution gas oil ratio for use under
field conditions is, eq. (2.6)
R s = R sif

5.615 F
5.615 F C bd
= R sif [
]
C bf
C bd
C bf

which, using eq. (2.9), can be expressed as

R s = R sif

B0 bf
- (R sid - R sd ) [
]
B0 bd

(2.12)

where
Rsif = solution gas oil ratio of the bubble point oil,
determined by flashing the oil through the appropriate
surface separators, and is measured
relative to the oil
vol. at 60 0F and 14.7 psia (refer
tables 2.3 & 2.4)
(scf/stb).
Rsid = solution gas oil ratio of the bubble point oil
determined during the differential experiment and
measured relative to the residual oil vol. at 60 0F and
14.7 psia (refer table 2.5 and eq. (2.10) (scf/stbresidual)

The differential data, as presented in table 2.5, can be

directly converted to the required form, table 2.4, using the
above relations.
For instance, using the following data from table 2.5, at a
pressure of 2400 psi

while from the separator flash tests (table 2.3), for the
optimum separator conditions of 150 psia and 80 0F
B0bf = (1/Cbf) = 1.2511 (rb/stb)
Rsif = 510 (scf/stb)
Therefore, using eq. (2.11)
1.2511
B0 = 1.2123
= 1.1822rb / stb
1.2830
And eq. (2.12)
1.2511
R s = 510 - (540 - 378)
= 352scf / stb
1.2830

Complete PVT Analysis

The complete PVT analysis for oil, provided by most
laboratories, usually consists of the following experiments
and calculations.
a) Compositional analysis of the separator oil and gas, for
samples collected at the surface, together with physical
recombination, or, compositional analysis of the reservoir
fluid collected in a subsurface sample.
Such analysis usually give the mole fractions of each
component up to hexanes. The heptanes and heavier
components are grouped together and the average molecular
weight and density of the latter are determined.

b) Flash expansion, conducted at reservoir

temperature. This experiments determines.
- the bubble point pressure
- the compressibility of the under-saturated oil as
c0 = -(1/v0)(dv0/dp) = -(1/B)(dB0/dp)
- the total volume vt of the oil and gas at each stage of
depletion.

The well is produced at a steady rate for a period of several

hours and the gas oil ratio is measured in scf of separator
gas per stock tank barrel of oil.
If this ratio is steady during the period of measurement

Therefore, the conversion from the differential data to give

the required field parameter Bo is

Similarly the solution gas oil ratio required in the field is R s

(scf/stb). The parameter in differential liberation data from
which this can be obtained is F. In fact, F the cumulative
gas liberated from the oil, must be proportional to Rsif Rs
(scf/stb), which is the initial solution gas oil ratio, as
determined in the flash experiment, minus the current
solution gas oil ratio at some lower pressure.
The exact relationship is

Finally, the determination of third parameter Bg can be

obtained directly from the differential parameter E as

Thus the lab. Differential data can be transformed to give

the required field PVT parameter using the following
conversions.

Fluid samples obtained from a new field discovery may be

instrumental in defining the existence of a two phase, that
is, gas cap, system with an overlying gas cap or underlying
oil rim.
As the compositions of the gas and oil zones are completely
different from each other, both systems may be represented
by individual phase diagrams.
The oil zone will be at its bubble point and produced as a
saturated oil reservoir but modified by the presence of the
gas cap.

Depending on the composition and phase diagram of the

gas, the gas-cap gas may be a retrograde gas cap, as shown
in Fig. 1-33, or dry or wet, as shown in Fig. 1-34.
When several samples are collected at various depths,
they exhibit PVT properties as a function of the depth
expressed graphically to locate the gas-oil contact (GOC).
The variations of PVT properties can be expressed
graphically in terms of the compositional changes of C1 and
C2, with depth and in terms of well bore and stock tank
densities with depth, as shown in Figs. 1-35 through 1-37.

Defining the fluid contacts, that is, GOC and wateroil contact (WOC), are extremely important when
determining the hydrocarbon initially in place and planning
field development.
The uncertainty in the location of the fluid contacts can
have a significant impact on the reserves estimate.
Contacts can be determined by
1. Electrical logs, such as resistivity tools.
2. Pressure measurements, such as a repeat formation tester
(RFT) or a modular formation dynamic tester MDT).
3. Possibly by interpreting seismic data.

Normally, unless a well penetrates a fluid contact directly,

there remains doubt as to its locations.
The RFT is a proprietary name used by Schlumberger for an
open-hole logging tool used to establish vertical pressure
distribution in the reservoir (i.e., it provides a pressure-depth
profile in the reservoir) and to obtain fluid samples.
At the appraisal stage of a new filed, the RFT survey
provides the best quality pressure data and routinely is run to
establish fluid contacts.
The RFT tool is fitted with a pressure transducer and
positioned across the target zone. The device is placed
against the side of the bore hole by a packer.

A probe that consists of two pretest chambers, each fitted

with a piston, is pushed against the formation and through
the mud cake.
A pressure drawdown is created at the probe by withdrawing
the pistons in the pretest chamber. These two chamber
operate in series:
The first piston is withdrawn slowly (taking about 4 seconds
to withdraw 10 cm3 of fluids); the second piston is
withdrawn at a faster rate, 5 seconds for 10 cm3.
Before the tool is set against the formation, the pressure
transducer records the mud pressure at the target depth.

Fig. 1-31 Phase diagram for a dry gas.

After N. J. Clark, Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs, 2 nd ed. Tulsa: SPE, 1969

Fig. 1-32 Composition of various reservoir fluid systems.

Fig. 1-33 Retrograde gas-cap reservoir

Fig. 1-34 Dry gas-cap reservoir.

Fig. 1-35 Determination of GOC from pressure gradients.

Fig. 1-36 Compositional changes of C1 & C7+, with depth.

Fig. 1-37 Variation of well bore and stock tank density with depth.

As the first pretest chamber is filled (slowly) with

fluid; the first main pressure drop p1 is observed, followed
by p2 as the second pretest chamber is filled.
The tighter the formation, the larger p1 and p2 are.
The recording, therefore, gives a qualitative indication of
the permeability of the reservoir.

Specific Gravity of the Solution Gas

The specific gravity of the solution gas, g, is described by
the weighted average of the specific gravities of the
separated gas from each separator.
This weighted average approach is based on the separator
gas/oil ratio:

(4-3)

where
n = number of separators
Rsep = separator gas/oil ratio, scf/STB
sep = separator gas gravity
Rst = gas/oil ratio from the stock tank, scf/STB
st = gas gravity from the stock tank
Crude Oil Density
The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit
volume of the crude at a specified pressure & temperature,
mass/volume. The density usually is expressed in pounds
per cubic foot & it varies from 30 lb/ft3 for light volatile oil
to 60 lb/ft3 for heavy crude oil with little or no gas
solubility.

It is one of the most important oil properties, because its

value substantially affects crude oil volume calculations.
This vital oil property is measured in the laboratory as
part of routine PVT tests.

Fig. 4-1 Standing & Katz density

correlation.

Fig. 4-2 Density correction for the

compressibility of crude oils.

Fig. 4-3 Density

correction for the
isothermal expansion of
crude oils.