Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

Chapter 11
The Stages of Learning

The Fitts and Posner

Three Stage Model

Fitts and Posner (1967) proposed motor

skill learning involved three stages
Cognitive stage: beginner focuses on
cognitively-oriented problems
Associative stage: cognitive stage change due
to cues from the environment
Autonomous stage: final stage where the skill
is automatic

Gentiles
Two Stage Model
Gentile

(1972, 1987, 2000) viewed

motor skill learning through two
stages
Initial stage involves:
movement coordination pattern acquirement
learn to discriminate between regulatory
and non-regulatory conditions

Gentiles
Two Stage Model, contd
Gentile

(1972, 1987, 2000) viewed

motor skill learning through two
stages (contd)
Later stage involves three
characteristics:
adapting
consistency
economy of effort

Gentiles
Two Stage Model, contd
Gentile

(1972, 1987, 2000) viewed

motor skill learning through two stages
(contd)
Unique feature of the second stage:
learners goal depends on the type of skill
closed skills require fixation
open skills require diversification

Performer and Performance

Changes Across the Stages of
Learning

Stages of learning models have distinct

characteristics at each learning stage
Observable changes are noted for both
the person and the skill performance
Two benefits are provided
Provides a closer look at the skill learning
process
Helps explain why instruction or training
strategies need to be developed for people
in different learning stages

Performer and Performance

Changes Across the Stages of
Learning, contd
Characteristics

are:

Changes in rate of improvement

Changes in movement coordination
Changes in altering an old or
preferred coordination pattern
Changes in muscles used to
perform the skill
Changes in energy cost

Performer and Performance

Changes Across the Stages of
Learning, contd
Characteristics

are (contd):

Changes in achieving the kinematic

goals of the skill
Changes in visual selective
attention
Changes in conscious attention
with performing a skill
Changes in error detection and
correction capability

Performer Characteristics that

Do Not Change Across the
Stages of Learning
We

use visual feedback during

practice in the first stage of learning
We continue to use this, even after
we become more skillful later on
Proteua (1998) hypothesized that
dependency develops since sensory
feedback becomes a sensory
component of memory
representation of the skill

Expertise
Experts

in skill performance areas

have the following characteristics:
Amount and type of practice leading to
expertise
Experts knowledge structure
Experts use of vision

Predicting Future
Achievement

Three approaches have been used

to predict if early learning leads to
later achievement
1. Correlating initial and later performance
1. doesnt correlate

2. Inter-trial correlations
1.Only trials close to each other correlate

3. The relationship between motor abilities

and the stages of learning
1. Abilities differ in each stage