CHAPTER 3:

COORDINATI
ON AND
RESPONSE

3.2 THE HUMAN NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Made up of
1.The central nervous system
Brain
Spinal Cord
2.The peripheral nervous system
Cranial nerve - branch from the brain
-connect brain to sensory and effector at
the head
Spinal nerve
-branch from the spinal cord
-connect the spinal cord to sensory and effector at the
thorax, abdomen, limbs

THE HUMAN BRAIN

The brain function as a coordinating
and integrating centre:
receive information from receptors
analyse information
integrate information
store information
transmit instruction to effectors

SPINAL CORD
Continuation of the medulla
oblongata
Located in the vertebral column
Consists of a grey matter in the
shape of H in the middle and a white
matter around it.

SPINAL CORD

FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL
CORD:
1. It connects the peripheral
nervous system to the brain.
2. It acts as a minor integrating
centre in producing simple
reflex responses such as:
-the withdrawal of the hand from
a hot object

NEURONE
The nervous system is made
up of millions of nerve cells
called neurones.
Neurones transmit nerve
impulses to other nerve
cells, glands or muscles.

DENDRITES

CELL BODY

NUCLEU
S
MYELIN
SHEATH

AFFERENT NEURONE
CARRY SENSORY
INFORMATION FROM
RECEPTOR CELL TO THE
BRAIN AND SPINAL
CORD

TRANSMISSION OF
INFORMATION ALONG THE
NEURONE

Nerve impulses is carried along

the neurones in the form of
electrical impulse.
-Travels in one direction from
dendrites to axon terminals.
Begins at the receptors and ends
at the effectors.

TRANSMISSION OF
INFORMATION ALONG THE
NEURONE

1. Receptor detects the stimulus.

2. Nerve impulses are carried by the
afferent neurone to the central nervous
system.
3. The central nervous system integrates
and interpret the information.
4. The central nervous system send nerve
impulses carried by the efferent
neurone to the effector.
5. Effector produce response.

 Neurones are not directly connected

there is a gap called synapse.
Synapse between axon terminal
with the dendrite of another neurone.
- Contains a lot of mitochondria and
vesicles containing neurotransmitters
(acetylcoline & noradrenaline)

 Nerve impulse arrive at axon terminal

(synaptic knob)
2. Nerve impulse stimulates the
vesicles to release neurotransmitters.
3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the
synapse to the subsequent dendrite.
4. Energy required is supplied by the
mitochondria
5. Dendrite is stimulated, and will pass
the impulse

VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
Controlled by the cerebrum of the brain.
Involves the process of integration and
interpretation of information to produce
response.
Example : kick a ball
Sight of the ball stimulates the receptor in
the eye information will be sent to the
cerebrum
The information about the ball is interpreted
in the motor area of the brain sent to the
skeletal muscle of the leg to produce a
response, that is to kick the ball.

 Automatic action not controlled by

the will of an individual
Controlled by medulla oblongata
-e.g peristalsis, heartbeat, breathing
-We are not aware of the responses
Autonomic nervous system
regulates internal body process

REFLEX ACTION
Reflex Arc pathway that a nerve impulse
travels from the receptor to the effector
Consists of receptor, afferent neurone,
interneurone in the spinal cord, efferent
neurone and effector.
Examples
Withdrawal of the hand from a hot
object; involves three neurones; afferent
neurone, interneurone, efferent neurone
Knee jerk; involves two neurones;
afferent neurone, efferent neurone

WITHDRAWAL OF HAND FROM

HOT OBJECT
When the hand touch a hot object,
receptors are stimulated
Impulses is generated travels along
afferent neurone to the spinal cord
Impulse travels to an interneurone
then transmitted to another synapse of
the efferent neurone.
Impulse in carried to the muscle.
Also involve other neurones in the brain
enable the person to feel the sensation
of heat and pain

3.3 THE ROLE OF HORMONES

IN HUMANS
Endocrine system release hormones to
regulates physiological process e.g growth,
reproduction, metabolism, mentrual cycle,
development of secondary sexual characteristics
Consists of endocrine glands which secretes
hormones
Hormones chemical substances that regulates
the activities of organs and tissues
Endocrine glands do not have ducts hormones
released into the bloodstream
Blood will carry the hormones throughout the
body to targeted organs, tissues and cells.

REGULATION OF HORMONE
SECRETION
1. Secretion of hormone regulated by
another hormone
Release of thyroxine is regulated by
thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH)
High level of thyroxine inhibits the
release of TSH
Low level of thyroxine stimulates the
secretion of TSH and then stimulates
the thyroid glands to produce thyroxine

2. Secretion of hormone regulated by the level of

certain substances
High level of glucose in blood stimulated pancreas
to secretes insulin
Low level of glucose in blood triggers the secretion
of glucagon
3. Secretion of hormones regulated by nervous
system
Hypothalamus receive nerve impulse from receptors
Then stimulated pituitary glands to release
hormone
Adrenal glands are also stimulated by the nervous
system

 There are also coordination that involve both

nervous and endocrine system e.g when a
person is being attacked by a dog
1. Eyes detect stimuli (dog)
2.Nerve impulse in sent to the brain
3. Brain send nerve impulse to adrenal glands
4. Adrenal glands produce adrenaline
5.Adrenaline increase heartbeat rate, breathing
rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level
6.Increase metabolic rate, that produce extra
energy to either fight or flight

THE USES OF HORMONES IN

MEDICINE
1. Growth hormones treat dwarfism.
2. Insulin treat patients with diabetes
melitus
3. Oestrogen treat problem related to
development of secondary sexual
characteristics, menstrual cycle
4. Progesterone maintain lining of
uterus, prevent miscarriage

 Plays an important role in homeostasis

Kidney is the primary organ
Kidney
cortex
medulla
Functional unit nephron Glomerulus
Bowmans
capsule
Renal
Tubule

Structure of Glomerulus

NEPHRON

FORMATION OF URINE
1. Ultrafiltration in the
glomerulus
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion

ULTRAFILTRATION

REABSORPTION &
SECRETION

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
Homeostasis is achieved by negative
feedback mechanism
Negative feedback mechanismbrings a change in a system back to
normal
Positive feedback mechanism- makes
a situation more intense

KIDNEY IN HOMEOSTASIS
Osmoregulation achieved by
regulating the vol. of urine
production & excretion from the
kidney.
Hormone: ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
(ADH)
Blood osmotic pressure
when a
person sweats too much

REGULATION OF BLOOD
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Blood osmotic
pressure

This results in an
increase in blood
osmotic pressure
and return it to
normal.

Osmoreceptors
less
stimulated.
Pituitary glandless stimulated
so less ADH is
secreted
So, less water
is reabsorbed
from filtrate
into blood.
Urine contains
more water
(dilute) and
lighter in
colour.

Adrenal
glandsstimulated to
release
Adolsterone
DCT absorb
more salt

Low ADH
causes DST
and collecting
duct to be less
permeable to
water.

HAEMODIALYSIS
A process of filtering blood by using
an artificial means to replace the
function of damaged kidney.
Takes 6 hours and a patient need to
do it 3 times per week.

REGULATION OF BLOOD
GLUCOSE LEVEL
Organ: Pancreas
Islet cells
-cells

insulin

- cells
Glucagon
Defect in insulin production
DIABETES MELLITUS

REGULATION OF BODY
TEMPERATURE

TYPES OF DRUGS &

EFFECTS
TYPE OF DRUGS

EFFECTS

STIMULANTS

increase CNS activity

Excessive use can cause
ecstacy that soon followed
by depression.

DEPRESSANTS

Slow down the activity of

CNS
Slow down transmission of
nerve imp. (tranquilisers)

HALLUCINOGENS

Cause a person to
hallucinate

NARCOTICS (heroin and

morphine)

Induce ecstacy feelings

Block pain signals
Slow down normal brain
functions

PLANT HORMONES
For

growth

promote cell

elongation

development
Hormones
parthenocarpy
Ethylene

auxin

in apical meristem
used in

synthesised during ripening of fruit

speed up ripening of fruits

break down complex carbohydrates

Auxin
In shoot- Auxin build up in the region
of shade & cause cell elongation in
the shade region.
In roots Auxin inhibit cell
elongation.

THE END
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