Descriptive

Research
Marketing Research MKTG
446

Angela DAuria Stanton, Ph.D.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research (often referred to as survey

research) is aimed at characterizing phenomena and
identifying association among selected variables.
Descriptive research can be used to:

describe the characteristics of certain groups

estimate the proportion of people in a specified population
who behave in a certain way
make specific predictions

Some specific examples of descriptive studies include:

The proportion of companies that have an electronic storefront

Target customer's evaluation of key product attributes
Measuring employee satisfaction

Classification of Descriptive
Studies
Longitudinal

the true panel

the single measures over time

Longitudinal Surveys

Cross-Sectional

field studies/surveys

Provides a series of pictures that, when pierced together,

provide a movie of the situation the changes that are occurring.
The sample remains relatively constant through time and the
sample members are measured repeatedly.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Provides a snapshot of the variables of interest at a single point

in time.
The sample is typically selected to be representative of some
known universe.

Longitudinal Data
Advantages
Single Measures Over
Time:
The Tracking Study

Consumer or Business
Panel

Allows turnover analysis

Allows collection of a great

deal more classification
information from respondents

Tends to produce more

representative samples of
population of interest

Produces fewer errors due

to respondent's behavior
being affected by the
measurement task

Allows the investigation of

a great many
relationships

Allows longer and more

exacting interviews

Produces fewer error in

reporting past behavior
because of natural forgetting

Produces fewer interviewerinterviewee interaction error

An Example of a Panel
Design
Number of Households in Panel Purchasing Each Brand of Detergent
TABLE 1
Brand Purchased

At Time Period 1

At Time Period 2

200

250

300

270

350

330

150

150

Total

1,000

1,000

TABLE 2A Turnover Analysis

At Time Period 2

At Time
Period 1

T1 Total

Bought A

Bought B

Bought C

Bought D

Bought A

175

25

200

Bought B

225

50

25

300

Bought C

280

70

350

Bought D

75

20

55

150

T2 Total

250

270

330

150

1,000

Another Way of Looking at

It
Loyalty Analysis
At Time Period 2

At Time
Period 1

T1
Total

Bought A

Bought B

Bought C

Bought D

Bought A

87.5%

12.5%

0.0%

0.0%

100%

Bought B

0.0%

75.0%

16.7%

8.3%

100%

Bought C

0.0%

0.0%

80.0%

20.0%

100%

Bought D

50.0%

13.3%

0.0%

36.7%

100%

Survey Research Methods

Personal Interview

Telephone

Self-Administered

Online (computer administered)

Survey Research Methods

Personal Interviews (or Person

Administered Surveys) requires the
presence of a trained human interviewer
who asks questions and records the
subjects answers
In-home or In-office
Executive interview
Mall intercept
Purchase intercept

Personal Interviews
Advantages

By physically being there, the

interviewer may persuade the person
to supply answers (probably the
highest response rate).
Information on the situation may be
observed, without asking.
Best for getting response from specific,
identified person.
Versatility of questioning methods (and
flexibility in sequencing) and use of
visual materials.
Allows for probing of open-ended
questions and clarification of
ambiguous questions.
Long questionnaires may be used
successfully under interviewer's
urging.
If the respondent is having trouble
understanding, interviewer may notice
and remedy this.
Selection of sample members can be
more precise.

Disadvantages

Expensive and time intensive.

Generally narrow distribution.
People may be reluctant to talk with
strangers.
Often difficult to identify individuals to
include in the sampling frame.
Interviewer's presence, mannerisms
and inflections may bias responses.
Respondents know that they can be
identified, which may inhibit their
willingness to give information.
Great difficulty in trying to supervise
and control field interviewers.
Staffing with capable interviewers,
especially when conducted in distant
places.
May inaccurately record respondents
answers

Survey Research Methods

Telephone Interviews personal interviews conducted

via telephone technology typically from a central location
Advantages

Relatively low cost

Wide distribution eliminates distance
obstacle
Callbacks
Avoids personal travel to interview
Rapid coverage of even widely
scattered sample.
Interviewers can be closely supervised
Less interview bias due to anonymity
Allows easy use of computer support
(CATI/CAI)

Disadvantages

Representative sampling frame difficult

to establish due to unlisted numbers
and increased use of cell phones
Inability to observe a respondent
Limitation to audio materials
Difficulty of conducting long interviews;
no way to prevent hang-ups
More difficult to establish rapport over
the telephone than in-person
Difficult to determine that appropriate
respondent is being interviewed
Restrictions on types of data collected
Misperceptions and sugging

Telephone Interviews
Results of First Dialing Attempts

Result
No answer
Busy
Out of service
No eligible person
Business
At home:
Refusal
Completion
Total

Number of Dialings

Probability of Occurrence

89,829
5,299
52,632
75,285
10,578
25,465
3,707
21,758
259,088

.347
.020
.203
.291
.041
.098
.014 (.146)*
.084 (.854)
1.000

* Probability of occurrence given eligible individual is at home

What to do about lack of listed numbers & cell phones?

Plus-one dialing
Random digit dialing
Systematic random digit dialing

Survey Research Methods

Self-Administered the respondent reads the survey

questions and record his/her own answers without the presence
of an interviewer. Typically done via mail, fax or drop-off.

Advantages

Sampling frame easily developed

when mailing lists are available
Respondent reads and answers
questions without interviewer influence
May respond whenever convenient
and without pressure
Any visual materials can be used
Relatively less expensive
More confidential information may be
divulged
Anonymity of respondents easier to
achieve
Eliminates the need for an interviewer

Disadvantages

A majority may not respond, and those who do

may not be typical
Significant time lag between the time the
survey is mailed and when returned
Nothing can be learned except what is written
on the questionnaire
The apparent low cost becomes relatively high
when response is poor
Questions may be misunderstood or skipped
A person may read the entire form before
answering any questions, so later questions
can influence answers to earlier ones.
Significant problems in "pass along" effect.

Survey Research Methods

Online typically conducted via e-mail or the Internet

Advantages

Survey setup and execution can be

done very quickly
Visual materials can be used
Respondent responds without being
influenced by the interviewer
May respond whenever convenient
and without pressure
Typically the least expensive
Can permit the respondent to be
interrupted and later resume where
he/she left off
Eliminates the cost of the interviewer.
Permits real-time data cleaning

Disadvantages

Response rates are becoming an issue

May be confused with spam.
Will not be able to reach people without
access or desire to use the Internet
Nothing can be learned except what is
written on the questionnaire
No one present to stimulate replies or offer
instructions.
Potential for "pass along" effect.
Respondent frustration if questionnaire
forces response.
Issues with projectability of the sample

Selecting a Survey Method:

Factors to Consider
Situation Characteristics

Task Characteristics

Budget
Time frame
Quality requirements (e.g.
completeness of data,
generalizability, of the results,
etc.)

Difficulty of the task

Stimuli need to elicit response
Amount of information needed
Research topic sensitivity

Respondent Characteristics

Diversity
Incidence rate
Respondent participation

Errors (or Bias) Affecting

Survey Research

Total Error
=
Sampling Error (difference between the

actual sample results and the true population results)

+
Non-Sampling (Systematic) Error

Non-Sampling Errors

Respondent Errors

Non-response error

Response Bias
Deliberate falsification (social desirability
error, auspices error, hostility, yea and naysaying)
Unconscious misrepresentation (faulty
recollection, fatigue, acquiescence error,
extremity bias)

Non-Sampling Errors

Measurement/Research Design
Errors

Construct development error

Scale measurement error (inappropriate questions,
scale attributes or scale point descriptors)
Survey instrument error (improper sequence,
length, poor or no instructions, etc.)
Data analysis error (use of wrong analytical
technique, etc.)
Misinterpretation error (making the wrong
inference, using only a selected portion of the
study results)

Non-Sampling Errors

Problem Definition Errors

Misinterpreting the true nature of the problem

situation

Administrative Errors

Data processing errors (coding, data entry or editing)

Interviewer error (cheating, recording error,
misinterpretation, carelessness
Sample design error (sample selection error,
sampling frame error, specifying the wrong
population, etc.)