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Human Memory
Figure 7.1 – Nickerson & Adams (1979) –
Which is the correct penny?
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Human Memory: Basic Questions
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Encoding: Getting Information Into
Memory
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Figure 7.4 Divided attention and driving performance – Strayer & Johnson (2001)
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Levels of Processing: Craik and
Lockhart (1972)
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XX 7.5
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Figure 7.6 – Retention at three levels of processing
– Craik & Tulving (1975) Table of Contents
Enriching Encoding: Improving
Memory
Elaboration = linking a stimulus
to other information at the time of
encoding
– Thinking of examples
Visual Imagery = creation of
visual images to represent words
to be remembered
– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-
coding theory – Figure 7.7, Paivio et
al. (1968) >>>>>>>>>>>
Self-Referent Encoding
– Making information personally
meaningful
Figure 7.7
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Storage: Maintaining Information in
Memory
Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information
storage in human memory
Information-processing theories – Atkinson & Shiffrin
(1977)
– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
xx 7.8
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Information-Processing Model of Memory
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Information-Processing Model of Memory
Retrieval
Attention Encoding
Sensory Short-term Long-term
Stimulus memory memory memory
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Sensory Memory
Stores all the stimuli that register on
the senses
Lasts up to three seconds
Two types
– Iconic memory
• Visual
• Usually lasts about 0.3 seconds
• Sperling’s tests (1960s)
Sensory – Echoic memory (we’ll come back to
Sensory this)
Input Memory
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Sensory Memory
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Sperling’s Experiment
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds
– Report as many letters as possible
Subjects recalled only half of the letters
Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix?
– No
How did Sperling know this?
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperling’s Experiment
Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after
matrix disappeared
– Tone signaled 1 row to report
– Recall was almost perfect
Memory for images fades after 1/3 seconds or so,
making report of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
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xx 7.9
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We are going to try it on the next
slide….Are you ready
5
4
3
2
1
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What was the last row…..
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Sensory Memory
Echoic memory
– Sensory memory for auditory input that lasts only 2 to 3
seconds
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Short Term Memory (STM)
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Memorize the following list of numbers:
18121941177614922001
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Write down the numbers in order.
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Now, try again…
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Short-term Memory
Limited capacity
– Can hold 7 ± 2 items for about 20 seconds
– Maintenance rehearsal
• The use of repetition to keep info in short-term
memory
CHUNK
– Meaningful unit of information
– Without rehearsal, we remember 4 ± 2 chunks
– With rehearsal, we remember 7 ± 2 chunks
– Ericsson & Chase (1982)
893194434925021578416685061209488885687727
31418610546297480129497496592280
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xx 7.9
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Short-Term Memory as “Working
Memory”
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xxx 7.11
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Long-term Memory
Retrieval
Attention Encoding
Sensory Working or
Sensory Long-term
Short-term
Memory memory
Input Memory
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Long-Term Memory: Unlimited
Capacity
Penfield’s neural
stimulation – p. 284 –
data was reinterpreted
Permanent storage?
– Flashbulb memories
– Brown and Kulick
(1977) – study of
assassinations
– Talarico & Rubin (2003)
– page 285-286 data in
F 7.12 – 9-11 study
– Recall through
hypnosis
Debate: are STM and
LTM really different?
– Phonemic vs. Semantic Figure 7.12
encoding
– Decay vs. Interference
based forgetting
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Long-term memory - Encoding
Elaborative rehearsal
– A technique for transferring information into long-term
memory by thinking about it in a deeper way
Levels of processing
– Semantic is more effective than visual or acoustic
processing
– Craik & Tulving (1975)
Self-referent effect
– By viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that
info more fully and are better able to recall it
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Long-term memory
Procedural (Implicit)
– Memories of behaviors, skills, etc.
• Demonstrated through behavior
Declarative (Explicit)
– Memories of facts
• Episodic – personal experiences tied to places & time
• Semantic – general knowledge
– Semantic network
– Figure 7.14
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How is Knowledge Represented and
Organized in Memory?
Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies – F 7.13
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out of
Memory
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in
retrieval
– Retrieval cues – Brown & McNeil (1966) study – resolve block
57% of the time with first letter of failed to retrieve word
Recalling an event
– Context cues – Godden & Baddeley (1975) – context-
dependent memory study with scuba divers
– Bartlett memory research – War of the Ghosts – F 7.15
Reconstructing memories – Loftus studies
– Loftus & Palmer (1974) – Figure 7.16 – I: smashed (40.8); collided
(39.3); bumped (38.1); hit (34.0); contacted (31.8) II: smashed (32%) hit (14%) control
(12%) (broken glass?)
– Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring, reality monitoring
• cryptomnesia
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Retrieval
Retrieval
– Process that controls flow of information from long-
term to working memory store
Explicit memory
– The types of memory elicited through the conscious
retrieval of recollections in response to direct
questions
Implicit memory
– A nonconscious recollection of a prior experience
that is revealed indirectly, by its effects on
performance
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Retrieval – Explicit Memory
Free-recall test
– A type of explicit memory task in which a person must
reproduce information without the benefit of external cues
Recognition task
– A form of explicit memory retrieval in which items are
presented to a person who must determine if they were
previously encountered
Retrieval failure
– Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & McNeill)
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Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
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Seven Sins of Memory – Daniel L.
Schacter
Misattribution – assigning a
Transience – loss of memory to the wrong source
memory over time Suggestibility – memories
Absent Mindedness – implanted as a result of leading
breakdown of interface questions, comments or
between attention & memory suggestions when a person is
trying to recall a past
Blocking – thwarted search experience
for information to retrieve Persistence – repeated recall
Bias – influence of current of disturbing information or
knowledge and belief on how events that one may want to
we remember our past forget
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xxx 7.17
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xxx 7.18
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Why Do We Forget?
Ineffective Encoding
Decay theory
Interference theory
– Type of material
– Figure 7.19
– Proactive
– Retroactive
– Figure 7.20
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Interference theory
Forgetting is a result of some memories
interfering with others
– Proactive interference
• Old memories interfere with ability to
remember new memories
– Retroactive interference
• New memories interfere with ability to
remember old memories
– Interference is stronger when material is
similar
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xxx 7.20
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Retrieval Failure
Encoding Specificity
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
Repression and the memory wards - F 7.21
– Authenticity of repressed memories?
– Memory illusions
– Controversy
False memories – Roediger & McDermott (1995)
procedure – Figure 7.22
Loftus & Pickrell’s (1995) lost-in-the-mall study
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Forgetting
Repression
– There are times when we are unable to
remember painful past events
– While there is no laboratory evidence for
this, case studies suggest that memories
can be repressed for a
number of years and
recovered in therapy
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xxx 7.22
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The Physiology of Memory
Biochemistry
– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis
Neural circuitry
– Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain
• Long-term potentiation – changes in postsynaptic neuron
Anatomy
– Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia – F 7.24
– case of H.M. – resection in 1953
– http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7584970
– http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html
– Clive Wearing
• Figure 7.23 - Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus,
• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
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xxx 7.23
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xxx 7.24
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Are There Multiple Memory Systems?
Figure 7.25
Implicit vs. Explicit
Declarative vs. Procedural
Semantic vs. Episodic
Prospective vs. Retrospective – Figure 7.26
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xxx 7.25
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Figure 7.26 – Retrospective versus prospective memory
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Improving Everyday Memory
Engage in adequate rehearsal – overlearning
Testing effect – F 7.27 – Roediger & Karpick
(2006)
Serial position effects – F 7.28
Distribute practice and minimize interference -
F 7.29
Emphasize deep processing and transfer-
appropriate processing
Organize information
Encoding specificity – vary location of studying
Use verbal mnemonics – narrative stories –
Figure 7.30 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Use visual mnemonics – method of Loci –
Figure 7.31
Akira Haraguchi, 60, needed more than
(10/3/2006) 16 hours to recite pi (π) to 100,000
decimal places, breaking his personal best of
83,431 digits set in 2005.
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Improving Memory
Practice time
– Distribute your studying over time
Depth of processing
– Spend ‘quality’ time studying
Verbal mnemonics
– Use rhyming or acronyms to reduce the amount of info
to be stored
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Improving Memory
Method of loci
– Items to be recalled are mentally placed in familiar
locations
Interference
– Study right before sleeping & review all the material
right before the exam
– Allocate an uninterrupted chunk of time to one course
Context reinstatement
– Try to study in the same environment & mood in which
you will be taking the exam
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Eyewitness Accounts
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Your Homework
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