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Coal Liquefaction
Production of Liquid Fuels from Coal using a Variety of
Industrial Processes
The chemical objectives of coal liquefaction are;
Reduction in the Effect of Weak Bonds and thus Separation of Fairly
Larger Units of Coal Structure into Smaller Units
Decomposition of Key Aromatic-Aliphatic, Aromatic-Aromatic and a
Variety of Carbon-Heteroatom Bonds within the Coal to form Smaller
Fragments
Increasing the H/C Ratio to produce and low sulphur, ash free liquid
product that is comparable to crude oil, gasoline or even heavy oil
bitumen
Process Options
Four Categories;
1.
Pyrolysis
2.
Solvent Extraction
3.
Catalytic Liquefaction
4.
Indirect Liquefaction
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors, including the potential quantity and the
composition of the pollutants, in addition to those compounds in the
fuel stream recognized as mutagens that are initially present in
internal process and utility streams, are a necessary consideration in
the operation of fossil fuel conversion plants.
Laboratory and bench-scale operations may not provide a true
picture of the generation of pollutants.
But it is essential that the methods for treating effluent streams to
remove pollutants and the types of equipment used for
environmental control must be part of the design and operation of
any potential coal liquefaction procedure.
Environmental Risks
Gaseous Emissions
The major type of air pollution control in coal liquefaction processes is
aimed at desulphurizing the gases generated during the coal
conversion process to make the fuels environmentally acceptable.
The removal of acid gases is achieved by the use of a physical solvent
process that removes them from the main stream, after which a
selective regeneration process can be used to release a stream of
hydrogen sulphide.
The hydrogen sulphide stream is sent to the sulphur recovery plant,
where it is oxidized to elemental sulphur.
Emissions
Preheater,
Liquefaction
Preheater, Particulates, Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxides
Hydrogen Generation, Hydro-treating,
and Solid Liquids Separation
Product Fractionation
Catalyst Regeneration
Product Storage
Acid Gases
Environmental Risks
Aqueous Effluents
Major contaminants are ammonium sulphide, phenols, cresols,
xylenols, and thiocyanates;
Wastewater treatment is a combination of processes for the
treatment, recycling and discharge of aqueous effluents
Waste Stream
Hydrogen Generation
Ammonia Recovery
Dissolved Ammonia
Phenol Recovery
Leachates
from
Gasifier
Ash, Trace Elements and Organics
Desulphurization Sludge, Bio-sludge,
and Spent Catalysts
Environmental Risks
Solid Wastes
A coal liquefaction plant generates three main types of solid waste
materials;
Ash and Slag from the Reactors
Sludge from Various Wastewater Treatment Units
Spent Catalysts from Catalytic Units
The possibility of trace materials leaching from the ash into ground or
surface waters must also be given attention
Waste Stream
Coal Pretreatment
Gasification
Filter Cake, Excess Residues from Ash, Minerals, Trace Elements, Absorbed Heavy
Solid-Liquid Separation
Hydrocarbons
Spent Catalyst from Hydro-treating
Spent Catalysts from Shift Conversion, Metals, Absorbed Organics Sulphur Compounds
Synthesis, and Sulphur Recovery
Sludges from Waste Treatment and Trace Elements, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,
Product Purification
Slag from Hydrogen Generation
Source
Efect
INORGANIC
Ammonia
Gas Liquor
Respiratory Edema,
Asphyxia, Death
Carbon Disulphide
Nausea, Vomiting,
Convulsions
Carbon Monoxide
Headache, Dizziness,
Weakness, Vomiting, Death
Hydrogen Sulphide
Nickel Carbonyl
Trace Elements
Element Specific
Source
Efect
ORGANIC
Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Amines
Cyanosis,
Methemoglobinemia,
Vertigo, Headache,
Irritation, Vomiting,
Convulsions
Aromatic Nitrogen
Heterocyclics
Coal Gasification
Coal gasification offers one of the most versatile methods to convert
coal into electricity, hydrogen, and other valuable energy-related
products.
Gasification of coal can produce synthesis gas (syngas) not only from
coals having a wide range of heat values but also from low-value
carbon feedstocks such as petroleum coke, high-sulfur fuel oil,
municipal wastes, and biomass.
This flexibility increases the economic value of these resources and
lowers costs by providing industry with a broader range of feedstock
options.
Coal Gasification
The gas produced by gasification can contain one or more of
contaminants such as ash, char, alkali metals, nitrogen compounds,
polynuclear aromatic compounds, tar, sulfur-containing compounds
(including hydrogen sulfide), and (on occasion) chlorine-containing
compounds.
The identity and amount of these contaminants depend on the
gasification process and the type of coal.
Coal Gasification
Conventional gas-cleaning systems are generally the technology of
choice for tar removal from the product gas. However, scrubbing
cools the gas and produces an unwanted waste stream. Removal of
the tar by catalytically cracking the larger hydrocarbons reduces or
eliminates this waste stream, eliminates the cooling inefficiency of
scrubbing, and enhances the product gas quality and quantity.
Cogasification of coal with biomass results (depending on the type of
biomass) in a change in the composition of the emissions as the ash
may contain higher proportions of heavy metals. A major concern
with these feedstocks is the potential for heavy metals to leach into
the environment following ash disposal.
Coal Gasification
Conventional gas-cleaning systems are generally the technology of
choice for tar removal from the product gas. However, scrubbing
cools the gas and produces an unwanted waste stream. Removal of
the tar by catalytically cracking the larger hydrocarbons reduces or
eliminates this waste stream, eliminates the cooling inefficiency of
scrubbing, and enhances the product gas quality and quantity.
Co-gasification of coal with biomass results (depending on the type
of biomass) in a change in the composition of the emissions as the
ash may contain higher proportions of heavy metals. A major
concern with these feedstocks is the potential for heavy metals to
leach into the environment following ash disposal.
Environmental Advantages
No mining issues;
No surface ash management
Smaller footprint for surface facilities
Fewer particulates, NOx, SOx
Good coincidence between sites for carbon storage and UCG
Environmental Risks
Ground Water
The most significant risk related to UCG is the ground water
contamination.
Production of a number of compounds in coal seam including
Phenols
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Benzene
Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia
Sulphides
Environmental Risks
Surface Water
The gas solution produced by UCG contains a component of liquid or
vaporized water (Produced water) which is removed from the gas
before the gas is combusted in a power plant.
This water contains residual hydrocarbons,
phenols and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
benzenes,
possibly
Environmental Risks
Subsidence
Subsidence is the sinking or lowering of a surface region relative to the
surrounding region.
In general, UCG subsidence results in height decrease equivalent to one-third of
the vertical thickness of the coal seam and would only affect land directly
above the gasified coal seam.
The magnitude and characteristics of subsidence depends on many factors
including;
Seam Depth
Rock Stiffness
Yield Strength
Environmental Risks
Subsidence
Subsidence typically results in a uniform lowering of the region as
opposed to abrupt potholes.
The primary concern with subsidence is the effect it can have on rerouting surface waters, and local impacts on shallow aquifers and
infrastructure like roads and pipelines.
In general, subsidence appears to be a site-specific issue. With proper
site selection and operational management, it should be possible to
avoid significant impacts to surface waters, road and industry
infrastructure and buildings by avoiding regions most sensitive to
surface level changes.
Environmental Risks
Operational Risk
Proper site selection and appropriate operation management practices
are essential to reduce the risk of serious environmental impacts.
Operational risks may include;
Catastrophic Failure Scenario: This may happen because of catastrophic
groundwater contamination in terms of the influx of the water toward the
gasification zone, thus resulting in the reduction of operational efficiency.
This can, eventually, lead to groundwater contamination as well. Likewise,
during tests in Spain in the 1990s, technical problems occurred when
attempting to restart a UCG operation that had been shut down. A
malfunction in the ignition system and failure of the temperature
measurement system resulted in the accumulation of methane gas
underground, causing an explosion that damaged injection well.
Environmental Risks
Operability: UCG is much more difficult to control than conventional
gasification as many of the variables (rate of water influx, distribution of
the reactants in the gasification zone, growth rate of cavity) can not be
controlled. The pressure in the underground gasification zone is primarily
controlled by the rate of air/oxygen injection and the corresponding rate of
extraction.
Many serious environmental risks can occur if UCG projects are not
properly designed or carefully operated.
Environmental Risks
Air Quality
The majority of air quality concerns associated with UCG result from
syngas combustion.
With UCG, there are essentially two categories of non-GHG air emissions;
Criteria Air Contaminants: Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Dioxide, Particulate Matter
Volatile Trace Elements: Mercury, Arsenic, Selenium
Environmental Risks
Land Use Impacts
UCG land use constitutes a series of wells drilled into a coal seam with
connecting roads and pipelines on the surface as well as any surface
facilities required to process the syngas.
UCG operators must perform a thorough assessment of the underground
environment at the selected site, including geology, hydrogeology and
rock mechanics.
The tools for this assessment may include;
Geological Mapping
Core Samples and Analysis
3-D Seismic Surveys
Aquifer Pressure/Hydrogeological Modelling
Environmental Risks
Land Use Impacts
UCG is often compared to coal mining and favoured for its decreases
land impacts; however, it should be noted that two technologies are
not competing for the same reserves of coal.
UCG operations are targeted at deeper sections of coal seams that
are otherwise un-mineable. The land benefits of UCG would only be
realized if replacing or avoiding the need for new coal mining
facilities.