Using the Internet from Home:

The Physical Layer

Chapter 4
Copyright 2001 Prentice Hall

Analog Transmission

In analog transmission, the state of line can vary

continuously and smoothly among an infinite
number of states

States can be signal strengths, voltages, or other

measurable conditions

Strength

Time

Digital Transmission

In digital transmission, time is divided into

periods of fixed length called clock cycles

For modems, there are a few thousand clock cycles per

second
For LANs, there are millions of clock cycles per second

Strength

Clock Cycle

Time

Digital Transmission

The line is kept in one of only a few possible

states (conditions) during each time period

Typically, there are between two and 64 possible states

per clock cycle
Here, only two states are shown

Strength

Clock Cycle

Time

Digital Transmission

At the end of each time period, the line may

change abruptly to another of these few states

Can also stay the same

Strength

Abrupt
Change

Clock Cycle

Stays Same

Time

Digital Versus Binary Transmission

Digital transmission: a few states

Binary transmission: exactly two states (1 and 0)

Binary is a special case of digital

Few States

Two States
1
0

Digital

Binary

States and Bits

2Bits per clock cycle=Number of states

For 1 bit per clock cycle,

2 states are required (One for 1, one for 0)
21=2
Binary
1

States
0

1
0

Clock Cycle

States and Bits

2Bits/clock

cycle=States/clock

cycle

For 2 bits per clock cycle, 4 states are required (22=4)

For 3 bits per clock cycle, 8 states are needed (23=8)
For 4 bits per clock cycle, 16 states are needed (24=16)

3 (11)
2 (10)
States
1 (01)
0 (00)

10
01

11
00

Clock Cycle

States and Bits

2Bits per clock cycle=States/clock cycle

With 4 states, send two bits per clock cycle (22=4)

With 8 states, send 3 bits per clock cycle (23=8)
With 16 states, send 4 bits per clock cycle (24=16)

3 (11)
2 (10)
States
1 (01)
0 (00)

10
01

11
00

Clock Cycle

10

Bits and Baud

Baud Rate = Number of clock cycles/sec

In this example, 4 baud (not 4 bauds/second)

Note: Number of clock cycles, not actual line changes

Bit Rate = Number of bits/second

In this example, 8 bits/second

10

Possible Change Not Made

01
01
00

1 Second

Equations

For Each Clock Cycle

Overall

2Bits per clock cycle = Number of possible states (Eq. 1)

Bit rate = Baud Rate * Bits per clock cycle (Eq. 2)

Example

Baud rate of 10,000 with four possible states

Bits per clock cycle = 2 (22=4) (Eq. 1)
Bit rate = 10,000 * 2 (Eq. 2)
Bit rate = 20,000 bps

11

12

Transmission Speeds

Bit: A single 1 or 0

Bits per second (bps)

100101001 ...

Factors of 1,000 (not 1,024 as in memory)

kilobits per second (kbps)--Note lower case k
megabits per second (Mbps)
gigabits per second (Gbps)
terabits per second (Tbps)

Occasionally given in bytes per second (Bps)

Bits per second / 8

Uncommon

13

Wire Propagation Effects

Propagation Effects

Signal changes as it travels

If change is too great, receiver may not be able to
recognize it

Original
Signal

Final
Signal

Distance

Wire Propagation Effects: Attenuation

Attenuation: Signal Gets Weaker as it Propagates

May become too weak for receiver to recognize

Signal
Strength

Distance

14

Wire Propagation Effects: Distortion

Distortion: Signal changes shape as it propagates

Adjacent bits may overlap

May make recognition impossible for receiver

Distance

15

16

Wire Propagation Effects: Noise

Noise: Thermal Energy in Wire Adds to Signal

Noise floor is average noise energy

Random energy, so noise spikes sometimes occur

Signal
Strength

Spike

Signal
Error
Noise

Noise Floor
Time

17

Wire Propagation Effects

Noise and Attenuation

As signal attenuates, gets closer to noise floor

So noise errors increase with distance, even if the
average noise level is constant

Signal
Strength

Signal
Noise Floor
Distance

18

Wire Propagation Effects: SNR

Want a high Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Signal strength divided by average noise strength

As SNR falls, errors increase

Signal
Strength

Signal
SNR

Noise Floor
Distance

Wire Propagation Effects: Noise & Speed

19

Noise and Speed

As speed increases, each bit is briefer

Noise fluctuations do not average out as much
So noise errors increase as speed increases
OK

Noise
Spike
Low Speed
(Long
Duration)

Error
One Bit

Average Noise
During Bit

Noise
Spike

One Bit

High Speed Average Noise

(Short
During Bit
Duration)

Wire Propagation Effects: Interference

20

Interference

Energy from outside the wire (nearby motors, other

wires, etc.)
Adds to signal, like noise
Often intermittent (comes and goes), so hard to diagnose

Signal
Strength

Signal
Interference
Time

Wire Propagation Effects: Cross-Talk Interference

Cross-Talk Interference

Often, multiple wires in a bundle

Each radiates some of its signal
Causes cross-talk interference in nearby wires

21

Wire Propagation Effects:Cross Talk

Wire Usually is Twisted

Usually, several twists per inch

Interference adds to signal over half twist, subtracts
over other half
Roughly cancels out
Simple but effective

- +

Single Twist

Interference

Signal

22

Wire Propagation Effects:Cross Talk

Terminal Cross-Talk Interference

Wire must be untwisted at ends to fit into connectors

So cross-talk interference is high at termination
Problems severe if untwist more than about 1.25 cm
(1/2 inch)
Usually the biggest propagation effect
Terminal
Cross Talk

23

Practical Issues in Propagation Effects

24

Distance limits in standards prevent serious

propagation effects

For instance, usually 100 meters maximum for ordinary

copper wire

If stay within limits, usually no serious problems

Problems usually occur at connectors

Crossed wires
New
Poor connections
Cross-talk interference

Wire Media: UTP

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Ordinary copper wire

Twisted several times per inch to reduce interference

Pair of wires needed for a complete electrical signal

Unshielded: nothing but plastic coating

No

protection from interference

25

Wire Media: UTP

26

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Business telephone wiring traditionally comes in 4-pair

UTP wire bundles

Used in LAN wiring to use existing building wiring

technology

Wire Propagation: RJ-45

RJ-45 connector terminates a UTP bundle

Slightly wider than RJ-11 residential connector

Width needed for 8 wires

27

Wire Media: UTP to the Desktop

UTP

Dominant for line from desktop to first hub or switch

Inexpensive to buy and install

Rugged: can take punishment of office work

Easily 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps with careful insulation

UTP
First Hub or Switch

28

29

Wire Media: Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber

Glass core, surrounding glass cladding

Light source turned on/off for 1/0
Total internal reflection at boundary
Almost no attenuation

Cladding
Core
Light
Source

Reflection

30

Wire Media: Optical Fiber

Mod B

Limited by Distortion

Light entering at different angles travels different

distances (different number of reflections)

Called different modes

Light from successive bits becomes mixed over long

distances

Light
Source

31

Wire Media: Optical Fiber

Mod B

Multimode Fiber

Wide core makes easy to splice (50 or 62 microns)

Many angles for rays (modes)

Short propagation distance (usually 200 m to 500 m)

Light
Source

32

Wire Media: Optical Fiber

Mod B

Single Mode Fiber

Narrow core difficult to splice (5 or 8 microns)

Only one angle for rays (one mode), so (almost) no

distortion

Longer propagation distance (usually up to 2 km for

LAN fiber, longer for long-distance fiber)

Narrow core makes fiber fragile and difficult to splice

Wire Media: Optical Fiber

Optical Fiber

High speeds over long distances

200 m to 2 km
Costs more than UTP, but worth it on long runs
Good for all links between hubs and switches within
and between buildings in a site network

Optical
Fiber

33

Wire Media: UTP and Optical Fiber

The emerging pattern: UTP from first hub or

switch to desk, Fiber everywhere else on site

34

35

Wire Media: Coax

Coaxial Cable

Used in cable TV, VCRs

Central wire, external concentric cylinder

Outer conductor wrapped in PVC

Outer Conductor Wrapped in PVC

Inner
Wire

Screw-On Connector

Wire Media: Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable

Installed widely today in old 10 Mbps Ethernet LANs

Not being used in new installations

Optical

fiber more cost-effective for long links

UTP more

cost-effective for desktop links

36

PC 232 Serial Ports

Ports

Connectors at back of PC
Plus related internal electronics to send/receive

PC 232 Serial Port

Follows EIA/TIA 232 standards

37

PC 232 Serial Ports: 9-Pin and 25-Pin Ports

9 pins or 25 pins

Parallel ports have 25 holes

38

Pins

9-pin Serial Port

25-pin Serial Port
25-pin Parallel Port
Holes

232 Serial Ports: Send on One Pin Each Way

39

9-Pin 232 Serial Ports

PC sends on Pin 3 (modem

receives)

PC receives on Pin 2 (modem

sends)

Pin 5 is a signal ground defining

zero volts

PC

Modem

232 Serial Ports: Send on One Pin Each Way

40

9-Pin 232 Serial Ports

Other pins are control signals

to tell other side when it may
transmit

Or tell PC what modem is

hearing on the line (ringing,
modem carrier signal)

PC

Modem

Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial: one wire, one bit per clock cycle*

Second (ground) wire needed for circuit is not shown

One
Bit in
Clock
Cycle
One

One
Bit in
Clock
Cycle
Two

*For simplicity, we
assume binary
transmission (2
possible states/clock
cycle)

41

Serial and Parallel Transmission

Parallel

N bits per second on N wires

Parallel is faster than serial
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0

Eight Bits
In Clock
Cycle One

1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0

Eight Bits
In Clock
Cycle Two

42

Serial and Parallel Transmission

43

Parallel Transmission

N bits per second on N wires

N=8 in this example, but this is not the only possibility
N can also be 4, 16, 32, etc.
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0

1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0

Serial and Parallel Transmission

Parallel Transmission is Only for Short Distances

Usually up to about 2 meters (6 feet)
Wire propagation speeds vary
Over long distances, bits from different clock cycles
overlap

1
0

1 1
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 0

44

45

PC 232 Serial Ports: Voltages

For sending data

One is -3 to -15 volts

Zero is +3 to +15 volts
Binary (only two possible states)
+15v

1
-15v

PC 232 Serial Ports

PC 232 serial ports are binary because there are

only two states (voltage levels)

PC 232 serial ports are serial because data is sent

on only one wire at a time

These are separate things

One does not require the other

46

47

Duplex

Full-duplex transmission: both sides can transmit

simultaneously

Even if only one sends, still full-duplex line

Even if neither is sending, still full-duplex line

Time 1
Both can send
Both do

Time 1
Both can send
Only A does

Time 1
Both can send
Neither does

48

Duplex

Half-duplex transmission: only one can transmit at

a time; must take turns

Still half duplex if neither transmits

Time 1
Only one side
Can send
A does

Time 2
Only one side
Can send
Neither does

Duplex

Duplex is a Characteristic of the Transmission

System, Not of Use at a Given Moment

In full duplex, both sides can transmit at once; in half

duplex, only one side can transmit at a time

Still full duplex system if only one side or neither side

actually is transmitting at a moment

Still half duplex if neither side actually is transmitting

at a moment

49

Radio Propagation

Broadcast signal

Not confined to a wire

50

Radio Waves

When Electron Oscillates, Gives Off Radio

Waves

Single electron gives a very weak signal

Many electrons in an antenna are forced to oscillate in
unison to give a practical signal

51

52

Radio Propagation Problems

New

Wires Propagation is Predictable

Signals go through a fixed path: the wire

Propagation problems can be easily anticipated
Problems can be addressed easily

Radio Propagation is Difficult

Signals begin propagating as a simple sphere

But they can be blocked
There are shadow zones
Shadow
Zone

53

Radio Propagation Problems

New

Radio Propagation is Difficult

Signals are reflected

May arrive at a destination via multiple paths

Signals arriving by different paths can interfere with

one another

This is called multipath interference

54

Radio Propagation: Waves

Waves

Wavelength
(meters)

Frequency in hertz (Hz)

Cycles per Second
One Second
7 Cycles

Amplitude
(strength)
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

Radio Propagation: Frequency Spectrum

55

Frequency Spectrum

Frequencies vary (like strings in a harp)

Frequencies measured in hertz (Hz)
Frequency spectrum: all possible frequencies from 0 Hz
to infinity

0 Hz

Frequencies

Metric system

kHz (1,000 Hz) kilohertz; note lower-case k

MHz (1,000 kHz) megahertz

GHz (1,000 MHz) gigahertz

THz (1,000 GHz) terahertz

56

57

Radio Propagation: Service Bands

Service Bands

Divide spectrum into bands for services

A band is a contiguous range of frequencies
FM radio, cellular telephone service bands etc.

Cellular Telephone
FM Radio
0 Hz

AM Radio

Service
Bands

Radio Propagation: Channels and Bandwidth

Service Bands are Further Divided into Channels

Like television channels

Bandwidth of a channel is highest frequency minus
lowest frequency

Channel
Bandwidth

0 Hz

Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1

Service
Band

58

Radio Propagation: Channels and Bandwidth

Example

Highest frequency of a radio channel is 43 kHz

Lowest frequency of the radio channel is 38 kHz
Bandwidth of radio channel is 5 kHz (43-38 kHz)

Channel
Bandwidth

0 Hz

Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1

Service
Band

59

Radio Propagation: Channels and Bandwidth

60

Shannons Equation

W is maximum possible (not actual) transmission speed

in a channel

B is bandwidth of the channel: highest frequency minus

lowest frequency

S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio

W = B Log2 (1 + S/N)

Radio Transmission: Broadband

Speed and Bandwidth

The wider the channel bandwidth (B), the faster the

maximum possible transmission speed (W)
W = B Log2 (1+S/N)

Maximum
Possible
Speed
Bandwidth

61

62

Telephony is Narrowband

Bandwidth in Telephone Channels is

Narrow

Sounds below about 300 Hz cut off to reduce

equipment hum within telephone system

Sounds above about 3,400 Hz cut off to reduce the

bandwidth needed to send a telephone signal

3.1 kHz
300 Hz

3.4 kHz

20 kHz

63

Telephony is Narrowband

Bandwidth in Telephone Channels is

Error in Book
Narrow

A radio channel would have to be from 0 to 3.4 kHz

(3.4 kHz)

This would mean a maximum possible transmission

speed of about 35 kbps
Required Radio Channel
3.1 kHz
300 Hz

3.4 kHz

20 kHz

Broadband

Two Uses of the Term Broadband

Technically, the signal is transmitted in a single

channel AND the bandwidth of the channel is
large

Therefore, maximum possible transmission speed is

high

Popularly, if the signal is fast, the system is called

broadband whether it uses channels at all

64

DATA TRANSMISSION - PHYSICAL

LAYER - ACESSO INTERNET

65

EXERCCIOS DE REVISO

1 - Quais os efeitos que prejudicam a propagao das mensagens na camada

fsica?

2 - Quais os principais tipos de acesso metlicos?

3 - Qual o mais utilizado a partir do desktop at o hub ou switch?

4 - No padro serial EIA/TIA-232 PC quais os pinos usados para

transmisso nos dois sentidos?

5 - Explique a diferena entre half-duplex e full-duplex.

6 - Qual a diferena entre bit rate e baud rate?

7 - Qual a taxa em bps de uma transmisso de 10.000 baud com oito linhas
possveis de estado?

8 - Quando o rudo aumenta o que acontece com a taxa mxima de

transmisso do canal?