Bending

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Pure Bending
Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples
acting in the same longitudinal plane
Introduction
Objective - Analysis and design of beams
Beams - structural members supporting loads at
various points along the member
Transverse loadings of beams are classified as
concentrated loads or distributed loads
Applied loads result in internal forces
consisting of a shear force (from the shear stress
distribution) and a bending couple (from the
normal stress distribution)
Normal stress is often the critical design criteria
x
My
I
Mc M
I
S
Requires determination of the location and

magnitude of largest bending moment
Introduction
Classification of Beam Supports
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
Determination of maximum normal and
shearing stresses requires identification of
maximum internal shear force and bending
couple.
Shear force and bending couple at a point are
determined by passing a section through the
beam and applying an equilibrium analysis
on the beam portions on either side of the
section.
Sign conventions for shear forces V and V
and bending couples M and M
Other Loading Types
Eccentric Loading: Axial loading which
does not pass through section centroid
produces internal forces equivalent to an
axial force and a couple
Transverse Loading: Concentrated or
distributed transverse load produces
internal forces equivalent to a shear
force and a couple
Principle of Superposition: The normal
stress due to pure bending may be
combined with the normal stress due to
axial loading and shear stress due to
shear loading to find the complete state
of stress.
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:
Treating the entire beam as a rigid
body, determine the reaction forces
For the timber beam and loading

shown, draw the shear and bendmoment diagrams.
Section the beam at points near

supports and load application points.
Apply equilibrium analyses on
resulting free-bodies to determine
internal shear forces and bending
couples
Identify the maximum shear and
bending-moment from plots of their
distributions.
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:
Treating the entire beam as a rigid body, determine
the reaction forces
from Fy 0 M B : RB 40 kN
RD 14 kN
Section the beam and apply equilibrium analyses

on resulting free-bodies
Fy 0
20 kN V1 0
V1 20 kN
M1 0
20 kN 0 m M1 0
M1 0
Fy 0
20 kN V2 0
V2 20 kN
M2 0
20 kN 2.5 m M 2 0
M 2 50 kN m
V3 26 kN
M 3 50 kN m
V4 26 kN M 4 28 kN m
V5 14 kN
M 5 28 kN m
V6 14 kN M 6 0
Sample Problem 5.1
Identify the maximum shear and bendingmoment from plots of their distributions.
Vm 26 kN M m M B 50 kN m
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
Replace the 10 kip load with an
equivalent force-couple system at D.
Find the reactions at B by considering
the beam as a rigid body.
Section the beam at points near the
support and load application points.
The structure shown is constructed of a
W10x112 rolled-steel beam. (a) Draw
the shear and bending-moment diagrams
couples.
for the beam and the given loading.
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
Replace the 10 kip load with equivalent
force-couple system at D. Find reactions at
B.
Section the beam and apply equilibrium
analyses on resulting free-bodies.
From A to C :
Fy 0 3 x V 0
M1 0
3x 12 x M
From C to D :
Fy 0 24 V 0
V 3x kips
0 M 1.5 x 2 kip ft
V 24 kips
M 2 0 24 x 4 M 0 M 96 24 x kip ft
From D to B :
V 34 kips
M 226 34 x kip ft
Sample Problem 5.2
Apply the elastic flexure formulas to
determine the maximum normal stress to
the left and right of point D.
From Appendix C for a W10x112 rolled
steel shape, S = 126 in3 about the X-X axis.
To the left of D :
M 2016 kip in
S
126 in 3
To the right of D :
M 1776 kip in
S
126 in 3
m 16.0 ksi
m 14.1 ksi
Relations Among Load, Shear, and Bending Moment
Relationship between load and shear:
Fy 0 : V V V w x 0
V w x
dV
w
dx
xD
VD VC w dx
xC
Relationship between shear and bending

moment:
M C 0 :
M M M V x wx x 0
M V x 12 w x
dM
0
dx
xD
M D M C V dx
xC
Sample Problem 5.3
SOLUTION:
Taking the entire beam as a free body,
determine the reactions at A and D.
Apply the relationship between shear and
load to develop the shear diagram.
Draw the shear and bending
moment diagrams for the beam
and loading shown.
Apply the relationship between bending

moment and shear to develop the bending
moment diagram.
Sample Problem 5.3
SOLUTION:
Taking the entire beam as a free body, determine the
reactions at A and D.
MA 0
0 D 24 ft 20 kips 6 ft 12 kips 14 ft 12 kips 28 ft
D 26 kips
Fy 0
0 Ay 20 kips 12 kips 26 kips 12 kips
Ay 18 kips
Apply the relationship between shear and load to

develop the shear diagram.
dV
w
dx
dV w dx
- zero slope between concentrated loads

- linear variation over uniform load segment
Sample Problem 5.3
moment diagram.
dM
V
dx
dM V dx
- bending moment at A and E is zero

- bending moment variation between A, B,
C and D is linear
- bending moment variation between D
and E is quadratic
- net change in bending moment is equal to
areas under shear distribution segments
- total of all bending moment changes across
the beam should be zero
Sample Problem 5.5
SOLUTION:
determine the reactions at C.
Apply the relationship between shear
and load to develop the shear diagram.
Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the beam and loading
shown.
Apply the relationship between

bending moment and shear to develop
the bending moment diagram.
Sample Problem 5.5
Apply the relationship between bending moment
and shear to develop the bending moment
diagram.
a
x
M B M A w0 x dx
2a
M B 13 w0 a 2
L
M B M C 12 w0 a dx 12 w0 a L a
a
x 2 x3
w0

2 6a
a w0
a
M C 16 w0 a 3L a
L
2
3
Results at C are compatible with free-body

analysis
Sample Problem 5.8
SOLUTION:
Considering the entire beam as a freebody, determine the reactions at A and
D.
A simply supported steel beam is to
carry the distributed and concentrated
loads shown.
Develop the shear diagram for the

beam and load distribution. From the
diagram, determine the maximum
bending moment.
Sample Problem 5.8
Considering the entire beam as a free-body,
M A 0 D 5 m 60 kN 1.5 m 50 kN 4 m
D 58.0 kN
Fy 0 Ay 58.0 kN 60 kN 50 kN
Ay 52.0 kN
Develop the shear diagram and determine the

maximum bending moment.
V A Ay 52.0 kN
VB V A area under load curve 60 kN
VB 8 kN
Maximum bending moment occurs at

V = 0 or x = 2.6 m.
M max area under shear curve, A to E
67.6 kN
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending
Internal forces in any cross section are
equivalent to a couple. The moment of the
couple is the section bending moment.
From statics, a couple M consists of two equal
and opposite forces.
The sum of the components of the forces in any
direction is zero.
The moment is the same about any axis
perpendicular to the plane of the couple and
zero about any axis contained in the plane.
These requirements may be applied to the sums
of the components and moments of the
statically indeterminate elementary internal
forces.
Fx x dA 0
M y z x dA 0
M z y x dA M
Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure
bending:
member remains symmetric
bends uniformly to form a circular arc
cross-sectional plane passes through arc center
and remains planar
length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
stresses and strains are negative (compressive)
above the neutral plane and positive (tension)
below it
Strain Due to Bending
Consider a beam segment of length L.
After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,
L y
L L y y
x
y
y
or
y
x m
c
c
m
(strain varies linearly)
Stress Due to Bending
For a linearly elastic material,
y
x E x E m
c
y
m (stress varies linearly)
c
For static equilibrium,

y
Fx 0 x dA m dA
c
0 m y dA
c
First moment with respect to neutral

plane is zero. Therefore, the neutral
surface must pass through the
section centroid.
For static equilibrium,

y
M y x dA y m dA
c
I
M m y 2 dA m
c
c
m
Mc M
I
S
y
Substituting x m
c
My
I
Beam Section Properties
The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
I
S
I section moment of inertia
I
S section modulus
c
A beam section with a larger section modulus

will have a lower maximum stress
Consider a rectangular beam cross section,
3
1
I 12 bh
S
16 bh3 16 Ah
c
h2
Between two beams with the same cross

sectional area, the beam with the greater depth
will be more effective in resisting bending.
Structural steel beams are designed to have a
large section modulus.
Properties of American Standard Shapes
Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section
Deformation due to bending moment M is
quantified by the curvature of the neutral surface
1 m m
1 Mc
c
Ec Ec I
M
EI
Although cross sectional planes remain planar

when subjected to bending moments, in-plane
deformations are nonzero,
y x
z x
Expansion above the neutral surface and

contraction below it cause an in-plane
curvature,
1
anticlastic curvature
Sample Problem 4.2
SOLUTION:
Based on the cross section geometry,
calculate the location of the section
centroid and moment of inertia.
Y
yA
A
I x I A d 2
Apply the elastic flexural formula to

find the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses.
m
A cast-iron machine part is acted upon

by a 3 kN-m couple. Knowing E =
165 GPa and neglecting the effects of
fillets, determine (a) the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses, (b)
the radius of curvature.
Mc
I
Calculate the curvature

1 M
EI
Sample Problem 4.2
SOLUTION:
Based on the cross section geometry, calculate
the location of the section centroid and
moment of inertia.
Area, mm 2
1 20 90 1800
2 40 30 1200
A 3000
y , mm
50
20
yA, mm3
90 103
24 103
3
yA 114 10
yA 114 10
Y
38 mm
3000
A
1 bh3 A d 2
I x I A d 2 12
1 90 203 1800 12 2 1 30 403 1200 182

12
12
I 868 103 mm 868 10-9 m 4
Sample Problem 4.2
Apply the elastic flexural formula to find the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
Mc
I
M c A 3 kN m 0.022 m
A
I
868 109 mm 4
M cB
3 kN m 0.038 m
B
I
868 109 mm 4
A 76.0 MPa
B 131.3 MPa
Calculate the curvature

1 M
EI
3 kN m
165 GPa 868 10-9 m 4
1
20.95 103 m -1
47.7 m
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:

shown, draw the shear and bendmoment diagrams and determine the
maximum normal stress due to
bending.

couples
distributions.
determine the corresponding
maximum normal stress.
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:
the reaction forces
RD 14 kN

Fy 0
20 kN V1 0
V1 20 kN
M1 0
20 kN 0 m M1 0
M1 0
Fy 0
20 kN V2 0
V2 20 kN
M2 0
20 kN 2.5 m M 2 0
M 2 50 kN m
V3 26 kN
M 3 50 kN m
V4 26 kN M 4 28 kN m
V5 14 kN
M 5 28 kN m
V6 14 kN M 6 0
Sample Problem 5.1

S 16 b h 2 16 0.080 m 0.250 m 2
833.33 10 6 m3
MB
50 103 N m
m
S
833.33 10 6 m3
m 60.0 106 Pa
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
couples.
for the beam and the given loading. (b)
determine normal stress in sections just
to the right and left of point D.
determine the maximum normal
stress to the left and right of point D.
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
B.
From A to C :
Fy 0 3 x V 0
M1 0
3x 12 x M
From C to D :
Fy 0 24 V 0
V 3x kips
0 M 1.5 x 2 kip ft
V 24 kips
M 2 0 24 x 4 M 0 M 96 24 x kip ft
From D to B :
V 34 kips
M 226 34 x kip ft
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:

shown, draw the shear and bendmoment diagrams and determine the
maximum normal stress due to
bending.

couples
distributions.
Sample Problem 5.1
SOLUTION:
the reaction forces
RD 14 kN

Fy 0
20 kN V1 0
V1 20 kN
M1 0
20 kN 0 m M1 0
M1 0
Fy 0
20 kN V2 0
V2 20 kN
M2 0
20 kN 2.5 m M 2 0
M 2 50 kN m
V3 26 kN
M 3 50 kN m
V4 26 kN M 4 28 kN m
V5 14 kN
M 5 28 kN m
V6 14 kN M 6 0
Sample Problem 5.1

S 16 b h 2 16 0.080 m 0.250 m 2
833.33 10 6 m3
MB
50 103 N m
m
S
833.33 10 6 m3
m 60.0 106 Pa
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
couples.
for the beam and the given loading. (b)
determine normal stress in sections just
to the right and left of point D.
determine the maximum normal
stress to the left and right of point D.
Sample Problem 5.2
SOLUTION:
B.
From A to C :
Fy 0 3 x V 0
M1 0
3x 12 x M
From C to D :
Fy 0 24 V 0
V 3x kips
0 M 1.5 x 2 kip ft
V 24 kips
M 2 0 24 x 4 M 0 M 96 24 x kip ft
From D to B :
V 34 kips
M 226 34 x kip ft
Sample Problem 5.8
Determine the minimum acceptable beam
section modulus.
M max 67.6 kN m
S min
all
160 MPa
422.5 10 6 m3 422.5 103 mm3
Choose the best standard section which meets

this criteria.
Shape
S , mm3
W410 38.8
637
W360 32.9
474
W310 38.7
549
W250 44.8
535
W200 46.1
448
W 360 32.9
Sample Problem 5.2
determine the maximum normal stress to
the left and right of point D.
Relations Among Load, Shear, and Bending Moment
Relationship between load and shear:
Fy 0 : V V V w x 0
V w x
dV
w
dx
xD
VD VC w dx
xC
Relationship between shear and bending

moment:
M C 0 :
M M M V x wx x 0
M V x 12 w x
dM
0
dx
xD
M D M C V dx
xC
Sample Problem 5.3
SOLUTION:
Apply the relationship between shear and
load to develop the shear diagram.
Draw the shear and bending
moment diagrams for the beam
and loading shown.

moment diagram.
Sample Problem 5.3
SOLUTION:
Taking the entire beam as a free body, determine the
reactions at A and D.
MA 0
0 D 24 ft 20 kips 6 ft 12 kips 14 ft 12 kips 28 ft
D 26 kips
Fy 0
0 Ay 20 kips 12 kips 26 kips 12 kips
Ay 18 kips
Apply the relationship between shear and load to

develop the shear diagram.
dV
w
dx
dV w dx
- zero slope between concentrated loads

- linear variation over uniform load segment
Sample Problem 5.3
moment diagram.
dM
V
dx
dM V dx
- bending moment at A and E is zero

- bending moment variation between A, B,
C and D is linear
- bending moment variation between D
and E is quadratic
- net change in bending moment is equal to
areas under shear distribution segments
- total of all bending moment changes across
the beam should be zero
Sample Problem 5.5
SOLUTION:
Apply the relationship between shear
and load to develop the shear diagram.
Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the beam and loading
shown.
Apply the relationship between

bending moment and shear to develop
the bending moment diagram.
Sample Problem 5.5
SOLUTION:
Fy 0 12 w0 a RC
a
M C 0 12 w0 a L M C
3
RC 12 w0 a
M C 12 w0 a L
3
Results from integration of the load and shear

distributions should be equivalent.
Apply the relationship between shear and load
to develop the shear diagram.
a
x
x
VB V A w0 1 dx w0 x
a
2a
0
VB 12 w0 a area under load curve
- No change in shear between B and C.

- Compatible with free body analysis
Sample Problem 5.5
Apply the relationship between bending moment
and shear to develop the bending moment
diagram.
a
x
M B M A w0 x dx
2a
M B 13 w0 a 2
L
M B M C 12 w0 a dx 12 w0 a L a
a
x 2 x3
w0

2 6a
a w0
a
M C 16 w0 a 3L a
L
2
3
Results at C are compatible with free-body

analysis
Design of Prismatic Beams for Bending
The largest normal stress is found at the surface where the
maximum bending moment occurs.
M max c M max
m
I
S
A safe design requires that the maximum normal stress be

less than the allowable stress for the material used. This
criteria leads to the determination of the minimum
acceptable section modulus.
m all
S min
M max
all
Among beam section choices which have an acceptable

section modulus, the one with the smallest weight per unit
length or cross sectional area will be the least expensive
and the best choice.
Sample Problem 5.8
SOLUTION:
Considering the entire beam as a freebody, determine the reactions at A and
D.
A simply supported steel beam is to
carry the distributed and concentrated
loads shown. Knowing that the
allowable normal stress for the grade
of steel to be used is 160 MPa, select
the wide-flange shape that should be
used.
Develop the shear diagram for the

beam and load distribution. From the
diagram, determine the maximum
bending moment.
Determine the minimum acceptable
beam section modulus. Choose the
best standard section which meets this
criteria.
Sample Problem 5.8
Considering the entire beam as a free-body,
M A 0 D 5 m 60 kN 1.5 m 50 kN 4 m
D 58.0 kN
Fy 0 Ay 58.0 kN 60 kN 50 kN
Ay 52.0 kN
Develop the shear diagram and determine the

maximum bending moment.
V A Ay 52.0 kN
VB V A area under load curve 60 kN
VB 8 kN
Maximum bending moment occurs at

V = 0 or x = 2.6 m.
M max area under shear curve, A to E
67.6 kN
Sample Problem 5.8
Determine the minimum acceptable beam
section modulus.
M max 67.6 kN m
S min
all
160 MPa
422.5 10 6 m3 422.5 103 mm3
Choose the best standard section which meets

this criteria.
Shape
S , mm3
W410 38.8
637
W360 32.9
474
W310 38.7
549
W250 44.8
535
W200 46.1
448
W 360 32.9
Introduction
Transverse loading applied to a beam
results in normal and shearing stresses in
transverse sections.
Distribution of normal and shearing
stresses satisfies
Fx x dA 0
Fy xy dA V
Fz xz dA 0
M x y xz z xy dA 0
M y z x dA 0
M z y x 0
When shearing stresses are exerted on the

vertical faces of an element, equal stresses
must be exerted on the horizontal faces
Longitudinal shearing stresses must exist
in any member subjected to transverse
loading.
Shear on the Horizontal Face of a Beam Element
Consider prismatic beam
For equilibrium of beam element
Fx 0 H D D dA
A
M D MC
y dA
I
A
Note,
Q y dA
A
M D MC
dM
x V x
dx
Substituting,
VQ
x
I
H VQ
q
shear flow
x
I
H
Shear on the Horizontal Face of a Beam Element
Shear flow,
q
H VQ
shear flow
x
I
where
Q y dA
A
first moment of area above y1

I
2
y dA
A A'
second moment of full cross section
Same result found for lower area

H VQ
q
x
I
Q Q 0
q
first moment with respect

to neutral axis
H H
Example 6.01
SOLUTION:
Determine the horizontal force per
unit length or shear flow q on the
lower surface of the upper plank.
Calculate the corresponding shear
force in each nail.
A beam is made of three planks,
nailed together. Knowing that the
spacing between nails is 25 mm and
that the vertical shear in the beam is
V = 500 N, determine the shear force
in each nail.
Example 6.01
SOLUTION:
Determine the horizontal force per
unit length or shear flow q on the
lower surface of the upper plank.
Q Ay
0.020 m 0.100 m 0.060 m
120 106 m3
I
1 0.020 m 0.100 m 3
12
1 0.100 m 0.020 m 3
2[12
0.020 m 0.100 m 0.060 m 2 ]

16.20 10
VQ (500 N)(120 106 m3 )

q
I
16.20 10-6 m 4
3704 N
m
Calculate the corresponding shear

force in each nail for a nail spacing
of 25 mm.
F (0.025 m)q (0.025 m)(3704 N m
F 92.6 N
Determination of the Shearing Stress in a Beam
The average shearing stress on the horizontal
face of the element is obtained by dividing the
shearing force on the element by the area of
the face.
H q x VQ x
A
A
I t x
VQ
It
ave
On the upper and lower surfaces of the beam,

yx= 0. It follows that xy= 0 on the upper and
lower edges of the transverse sections.
If the width of the beam is comparable or large
relative to its depth, the shearing stresses at D1
and D2 are significantly higher than at D.
Shearing Stresses xy in Common Types of Beams

For a narrow rectangular beam,
VQ 3 V
y 2
xy
1 2
Ib 2 A
c
3V
max
2A
For American Standard (S-beam)

and wide-flange (W-beam) beams
VQ
It
V
max
Aweb
ave
Sample Problem 6.2
SOLUTION:
Develop shear and bending moment
diagrams. Identify the maximums.
Determine the beam depth based on
allowable normal stress.
A timber beam is to support the three
concentrated loads shown. Knowing
that for the grade of timber used,
all 1800 psi
all 120 psi
determine the minimum required depth

d of the beam.
Determine the beam depth based on

allowable shear stress.
Required beam depth is equal to the
larger of the two depths found.
Sample Problem 6.2
SOLUTION:
Develop shear and bending moment
diagrams. Identify the maximums.
Vmax 3 kips
M max 7.5 kip ft 90 kip in
Sample Problem 6.2
Determine the beam depth based on allowable
normal stress.
all
M max
S
1800 psi
90 103 lb in.
0.5833 in. d 2
d 9.26 in.
1 bd3
I 12
I
S 16 b d 2
c
16 3.5 in. d 2
0.5833 in. d 2
Determine the beam depth based on allowable

shear stress.
3 Vmax
2 A
3 3000 lb
120 psi
2 3.5 in. d
d 10.71in.
all
Required beam depth is equal to the larger of the two.

d 10.71in.
Longitudinal Shear on a Beam Element
of Arbitrary Shape
We have examined the distribution of
the vertical components xy on a
transverse section of a beam. We
now wish to consider the horizontal
components xz of the stresses.
Consider prismatic beam with an
element defined by the curved surface
CDDC.
Fx 0 H D C dA
a
Except for the differences in

integration areas, this is the same
result obtained before which led to
H
VQ
x
I
H VQ
x
I
Example 6.04
SOLUTION:
Determine the shear force per unit
length along each edge of the upper
plank.
Based on the spacing between nails,
determine the shear force in each
nail.
A square box beam is constructed from
four planks as shown. Knowing that the
spacing between nails is 1.5 in. and the
beam is subjected to a vertical shear of
magnitude V = 600 lb, determine the
shearing force in each nail.
Example 6.04
SOLUTION:
Determine the shear force per unit
length along each edge of the upper
plank.
VQ 600 lb 4.22 in 3
lb
q
92
.
3
I
in
27.42 in 4
q
lb
46.15
2
in
edge force per unit length
For the upper plank,

Q Ay 0.75in. 3 in.1.875 in.
4.22 in 3
For the overall beam cross-section,

1 4.5 in 1 3 in
I 12
12
3
27.42 in 4
Based on the spacing between nails,

determine the shear force in each
nail.
lb
F f 46.15 1.75 in
in
F 80.8 lb
Shearing Stresses in Thin-Walled Members
Consider a segment of a wide-flange
beam subjected to the vertical shear V.
The longitudinal shear force on the
element is
H
VQ
x
I
The corresponding shear stress is

zx xz
H VQ
t x It
Previously found a similar expression

for the shearing stress in the web
xy
VQ
It
NOTE: xy 0
xz 0
in the flanges
in the web
The variation of shear flow across the
section depends only on the variation of
the first moment.
q t
VQ
I
For a box beam, q grows smoothly from

zero at A to a maximum at C and C and
then decreases back to zero at E.
The sense of q in the horizontal
portions of the section may be deduced
from the sense in the vertical portions
or the sense of the shear V.
For a wide-flange beam, the shear flow
increases symmetrically from zero at A
and A, reaches a maximum at C and the
decreases to zero at E and E.
The continuity of the variation in q and
the merging of q from section branches
suggests an analogy to fluid flow.
Sample Problem 6.3
SOLUTION:
For the shaded area,
Q 4.31in 0.770 in 4.815 in
15.98 in 3
The shear stress at a,

Knowing that the vertical shear is 50
kips in a W10x68 rolled-steel beam,
determine the horizontal shearing
stress in the top flange at the point a.
VQ 50 kips 15.98 in 3
It
394 in 4 0.770 in
2.63 ksi
Plastic Deformations
I
c
Recall: M Y Y maximum elastic moment

For M = PL < MY , the normal stress does
not exceed the yield stress anywhere along
the beam.
For PL > MY , yield is initiated at B and B.
For an elastoplastic material, the half-thickness
of the elastic core is found from
2
3
1
y
Y
Px M Y 1 2
2
3 c
The section becomes fully plastic (yY = 0) at

the wall when
3
PL M Y M p
2
Maximum load which the beam can support is

Pmax
Mp
L
Preceding discussion was based on
normal stresses only
Consider horizontal shear force on an
element within the plastic zone,
H C D dA Y Y dA 0
Therefore, the shear stress is zero in the

plastic zone.
Shear load is carried by the elastic
core, 3 P
y2
xy
2 A
yY
max
where A 2byY
3P
2 A
As A decreases, max increases and

may exceed Y
For any member subjected to pure bending
y
x m
c
strain varies linearly across the

section
If the member is made of a linearly elastic material,
the neutral axis passes through the section centroid
and
My
I
For a material with a nonlinear stress-strain curve,

the neutral axis location is found by satisfying
Fx x dA 0
M y x dA
For a member with vertical and horizontal planes of

symmetry and a material with the same tensile and
compressive stress-strain relationship, the neutral
axis is located at the section centroid and the stressstrain relationship may be used to map the strain
distribution from the stress distribution.
When the maximum stress is equal to the ultimate
strength of the material, failure occurs and the
corresponding moment MU is referred to as the
ultimate bending moment.
The modulus of rupture in bending, RB, is found
from an experimentally determined value of MU
and a fictitious linear stress distribution.
RB
MU c
I
RB may be used to determine MU of any member

made of the same material and with the same
cross sectional shape but different dimensions.
Plastic Deformations of Members With a
Single Plane of Symmetry
Fully plastic deformation of a beam with only a
vertical plane of symmetry.
The neutral axis cannot be assumed to pass
through the section centroid.
Resultants R1 and R2 of the elementary
compressive and tensile forces form a couple.
R1 R2
A1 Y A2 Y
The neutral axis divides the section into equal

areas.
The plastic moment for the member,
M p 12 A Y d
Residual Stresses
Plastic zones develop in a member made of an
elastoplastic material if the bending moment is
large enough.
Since the linear relation between normal stress
and strain applies at all points during the
unloading phase, it may be handled by assuming
the member to be fully elastic.
Residual stresses are obtained by applying the
principle of superposition to combine the stresses
due to loading with a moment M (elastoplastic
deformation) and unloading with a moment -M
(elastic deformation).
The final value of stress at a point will not, in
general, be zero.
Example 4.05, 4.06
A member of uniform rectangular cross section is
subjected to a bending moment M = 36.8 kN-m.
The member is made of an elastoplastic material
with a yield strength of 240 MPa and a modulus
of elasticity of 200 GPa.
Determine (a) the thickness of the elastic core, (b)
the radius of curvature of the neutral surface.
After the loading has been reduced back to zero,
determine (c) the distribution of residual stresses,
(d) radius of curvature.
Example 4.05, 4.06
Thickness of elastic core:
M
3M
2 Y
yY2
1
1 3 2
36.8 kN m
yY
yY
0.666
c
60 mm
I 2 2 2
3
3 2
bc 3 50 10 m 60 10 m
c 3
120 10 6 m3
I
M Y Y 120 10 6 m3 240 MPa
c
28.8 kN m
yY2
1
1 3 2
c
2 yY 80 mm
Radius of curvature:
Maximum elastic moment:
3 28.8 kN m
2
Y 240 106 Pa
Y
E
200 109 Pa
1.2 103
y
Y Y
yY 40 103 m
Y
1.2 103
33.3 m
Example 4.05, 4.06
M = 36.8 kN-m
yY 40 mm
Y 240 MPa
M = -36.8 kN-m
Mc 36.8 kN m
I
120 106 m3
306.7 MPa 2 Y
M=0
At the edge of the elastic core,
x 35.5 106 Pa
x
E
200 109 Pa
177.5 10 6
yY
40 103 m
x 177.5 10 6
225 m
Stress Concentrations
Stress concentrations may occur:

in the vicinity of points where the
loads are applied
in the vicinity of abrupt changes
in cross section
m K
Mc
I
Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material
Rectangular beam made of an elastoplastic material
Mc
I
x Y
m Y
I
M Y Y maximum elastic moment
c
If the moment is increased beyond the maximum

elastic moment, plastic zones develop around an
elastic core.
M
3M
2 Y
yY2
1
1 3 2
yY elastic core half - thickness
In the limit as the moment is increased further, the

elastic core thickness goes to zero, corresponding to a
fully plastic deformation.
M p 32 M Y plastic moment
Mp
k
shape factor (depends only on cross section shape)
MY
Bending of Members Made of Several Materials
Consider a composite beam formed from
two materials with E1 and E2.
Normal strain varies linearly.
x
Piecewise linear normal stress variation.

1 E1 x
E1 y
2 E2 x
E2 y
Neutral axis does not pass through

section centroid of composite section.
Elemental forces on the section are
Ey
E y
dF1 1dA 1 dA dF2 2 dA 2 dA
My
I
1 x
Define a transformed section such that

2 n x
dF2
nE1 y dA E1 y n dA
E
n 2
E1
Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass
Evaluate the cross sectional properties
of the transformed section
Calculate the maximum stress in the
transformed section. This is the correct
maximum stress for the brass pieces of
the bar.
Bar is made from bonded pieces of
steel (Es = 29x106 psi) and brass
(Eb = 15x106 psi). Determine the
maximum stress in the steel and
brass when a moment of 40 kip*in
is applied.
Determine the maximum stress in the

steel portion of the bar by multiplying
the maximum stress for the transformed
section by the ratio of the moduli of
elasticity.
Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
Transform the bar to an equivalent cross section
made entirely of brass.
Es 29 106 psi
n
1.933
Eb 15 106 psi
bT 0.4 in 1.933 0.75 in 0.4 in 2.25 in
Evaluate the transformed cross sectional properties

1 b h3 1 2.25 in. 3 in 3
I 12
T
12
5.063 in 4
Calculate the maximum stresses

m
Mc 40 kip in 1.5 in
11.85 ksi
4
I
5.063 in
b max m
s max n m 1.933 11.85 ksi
b max 11.85 ksi

s max 22.9 ksi
Reinforced Concrete Beams
Concrete beams subjected to bending moments are
reinforced by steel rods.
The steel rods carry the entire tensile load below
the neutral surface. The upper part of the
concrete beam carries the compressive load.
In the transformed section, the cross sectional area
of the steel, As, is replaced by the equivalent area
nAs where n = Es/Ec.
To determine the location of the neutral axis,
bx x n As d x 0
2
1 b x2
2
n As x n As d 0
The normal stress in the concrete and steel

x
My
I
c x
s n x
Sample Problem 4.4
SOLUTION:
Transform to a section made entirely
of concrete.
Evaluate geometric properties of
transformed section.
Calculate the maximum stresses
in the concrete and steel.
A concrete floor slab is reinforced with
5/8-in-diameter steel rods. The modulus
of elasticity is 29x106psi for steel and
3.6x106psi for concrete. With an applied
bending moment of 40 kip*in for 1-ft
width of the slab, determine the maximum
stress in the concrete and steel.
Sample Problem 4.4
SOLUTION:
Transform to a section made entirely of concrete.
Es 29 106 psi
n
8.06
Ec 3.6 106 psi
2
nAs 8.06 2 4 85 in 4.95 in 2
Evaluate the geometric properties of the

transformed section.
x
4.95 4 x 0
2
12 x
x 1.450 in
I 13 12 in 1.45 in 3 4.95 in 2 2.55 in 2 44.4 in 4
Calculate the maximum stresses.

c
Mc1 40 kip in 1.45 in
I
44.4 in 4
s n
Mc2
40 kip in 2.55 in
8.06
I
44.4 in 4
c 1.306 ksi
s 18.52 ksi

Bending

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Bending

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