COVALENT

BONDING

When atoms of nonmetal

bond with each other, the
atoms share the electrons
to lower the energy.
A chemical bonding that
result when atoms share
electrons is called covalent
bonding or covalent bond.

Lewis symbols are often used to

keep track of electrons in a
covalent bond. Two electrons
shared between two atoms are
shown as a pair of dots (:) or
dashes () placed between the
symbols of the two bonded atoms.
The formation of H2 from
hydrogen atoms, for example, can
be depicted as follows.

.
.
H + H

H :H

or
.
.
H + H
H :H atau H

is the Lewis structure of H2O

Shared electron pair

H: H
Circle indicates that there are
two electrons in the valence
shell of each hydrogen atom

Since electrons are shared, in the

H2 molecule, each H atom is
considered to have two electrons.

Hydrogen, with just one

electron in its K shell, can
complete valence shell by
obtaining a share of just
one electron from another
atom such as given in the
following example.

Shared electron pair

.
.
H F:
:

Circle indicates that there are

two electrons in the valence
shell of hydrogen atom and eight
electrons in the valence shell of
fluorine atom

Sharing electrons causes

in the HF molecule,
hydrogen atom is
considered to have two
electrons, while fluorine
atoms is considered to
have eight electrons.

Many nonhydrogen
atoms share one or more
electrons with the same
or different atom to
attain eight electrons in
its valence shell. These
atoms obey the octet rule
such as given in the
following examples.

..
..
. + :F .
:F
..
..
or
..
..
. + :F .
:F
..
..

.. ..
:
:F
:
F
..
..

..
.
:F
..

.. . ..
.
:Cl
:
F
..
..

..
.
:F
..

.. ..
:Cl
:
F
.. ..

..
. +
:Cl
..
or
..
.+
:Cl
..

.. ..
:F
:
F
.. ..

H
H C H

.
.
.
H .N
or
H
..

H N H

H
or

.
:
H .O
..

H
:

H
.
.
.
.
.
H .C
H
or
..
H

H O:
H

:C :.:. O : or :C

or O C O
:

O :: C ::O

O:

The Lewis
structures such as
given above are
representation of a
molecule that shows
valence electrons as
dots.

The covalent bond can

also be formed between
atoms in polyatomic ions
such as hydronium ion,
H3O+, ammonium ion,
NH4+, and hydoxide ion,
OH. Their Lewis
structures are give in the
following pictures.

H
.
.
.
.
.
H.N
H
..
H

H O

H
+

+
or

H N H
H

or

: :

: :

.
:O . H

or

+
.
.
.
H .O
.. H
H

:O

LP

: .
.. .

H O : or
H

BP
H O:
H

BP
There are two kinds of pair of electron
in the molecule or polyatomic ion,
namely bonding pair (BP) and
nonbonding pair or lone pair (LP) as
shown in the following figure.

Some simple rule about covalent

bond and the octet rule
Elements in the
period 2 having
fewer than 4
electrons (lithium,
beryllium, and
boron) are not
necessary to obey
the octet rule such
as shown in the
following
examples.

Li C H
H
H
..
:F
..

Be
B
:F
:
..

H
..
F..:

The maximum
number of
electrons in the
valence shell of
elements in the
period 2 is eight.
Some examples
are given in the
following
figures.

..
:F
..

..
:F :
Be

2-

..
F.. :

:
:F
..
..
:F
..

..
:F :
B
:
:F
..

..
F
..:

The elements in the period 3 or

more are not necessary to obey
the octet rule. In a molecule
and polyatomic ion, the number
of electrons in the valence shell
of these atoms may be more
than eight electrons such as
shown in the following
examples.

..
:F :
..
:F..

..
:F :
. . .. .. ..
F.. ..F
.. . .
.F. .. ..F..

. . ..
F..

.. ..
..F

..
:F :

..
:F..
I
..
..
..F..
..F..

:F.. :

:F.. :

:F.. :

PF5

SF6

IF7

. . ..
F..
..
.F. ..

In simple molecules or
simple polyatomic ions
there is an atom acting as
a central atom, whereas
all atoms bond to the
central atom are called
substituents.
The central atom is
bonded to two or more
other atoms.

CCl4

C
Cl
Central
Atom

BF4

Cl

Cl

Cl

B
F

Substituents

F
Central
Atom

Atoms bond only to one atom are also called

terminal atom.
F

Cl

C
Cl
Central
Atom

Cl

Cl

B
F

Terminal atom

F
Central
Atom

The central atom is

usually written first in
the formula of molecule
or polyatomic ion such
as in BeCl2, CH4, NH3,
NO3, ClO4, and NH4+.
H atom is always
terminal atom.

Single and multiple covalent bonds

Double covalent bond

or O

:C :.:. O : or :C
Triple covalent bond

C
O:

: :

: :

: :

: :

O :: C ::O

Single
covalent
bond

ethane

Triple
covalent
bond

Double
covalent
bond

ethene or ethylene

ethyne or acetylene

bond

1 bond
and
1 bond

ethane

1 bond
and
2 bond

ethene or ethylene

ethyne or acetylene

The distance between the two nuclei

that are held by a chemical bond is
called covalent bond length.

Covalent
bond
length

ethane
Covalent
bond
length

The net number of pairs of bonding electrons

between two covalently bonded atoms
is called bond order.
Bond order = 1

ethane

Bond order = 2

ethene or ethylene

Bond order = 3

ethyne or acetylene

The covalent bond length between two atoms

decreases with increasing the bond order.
Bond order = 1

Bond order = 2

The bond length of C

C > C

Bond order = 3

C> C

Coordinate covalent bond

The electrons used in the formation of a covalent
bond may come from one atom such as shown in
the following example
H
H

N..
H

H
H+

N .. H
H

H
or

N
H

This kind of bond is called

a coordinate covalent bond or dative covalent bond.

The coordinate covalent bond

is also formed when
ammonia reacts with boron trifluoride

F
..

..
F
..

..

..
..

F
..

..
F

..
..

..
F
..

..

+ B

..
..

..

..
..

..
F

Nonpolar and polar covalent bond

A covalent bond involves the sharing of at
least one pair of electrons between two
atoms. The covalent bonds in H2, F2, O2,
and N2
H

are called nonpolar covalent bonds since

the bonded atoms have
the same electronegativity.

The covalent bonds in HF, H2O, NH3,

and CCl4
H

Cl

O
H

N
H

Cl

C
Cl

are called polar covalent bonds

since the bonded atoms have
different electronegativities.

Cl

In polar covalent bond the electron pair is

pulled toward the more electronegative
atom. In HF bond, since the F atom is
more electronegative than the H atom, the
bonding electron pair is pulled toward F.
The bonding electron pair spends most of
their time around the F atom. This induces
partial positive charge ( +) on H atom and
partial negative ( -) charge on F atom.

Ionic or covalent bond?

When is a bond considered to be ionic or
covalent?
Bond between two atoms whose
electronegativities differ by at least 1.7
unit (in Pauling scale) may be considered
to be ionic bond, and bond between two
atoms whose electronegativities differ by
less than 1.7 unit may be considered to be
covalent bond.

Drawing the Lewis structure

i. Decide wich atom is the
central atom of a molecule or
polyatomic ion

ii. Determine the skeletal structure

iii. Count the total valence electrons (TVE).

TVE = total valence electron of atoms - charge

iv. Place a bond between the central atom

with all substituents.
Count the total sigma electron (TSE) or
the total number of electrons used to
form sbonds.

v. Place the rest of the electrons as lone pairs

in substituents so that all of them have octet
configuration. The total number of electron
required may be called TLPE (total lone pair
electrons).

vi. Calculate the rest of the electron (RE) using this equation
RE = TVE -TSE - TLPE.

vii. Place the rest of the electron on central atom as lone pairs.
Check whether all atoms have the possible lowest value of
formal charge. If so, the structure obtained is the accepted
Lewis structure.

viii. If not, change one or more lone pairs on substituents

to bonds between the substituents and central atom
untill all atoms have the possible lowest value of formal charge.
The structure obtained is the accepted Lewis structure.

Example 1: CH4, methane

(i) Central atom: C
(ii) Skeletal structure

H
H

C
H

(iii) TVE = 4 + 4 x 1 = 4
(iv) Placing 4 bonds between
carbon and four hydrogen atoms.

H
H

C
H

There are 8 electrons used to

form 4 bonds and no more
electrons left. Therefore that
structure is the accepted Lewis
structure of CH4.

Example 2: BF3, boron trifluoride

(i) Central atom: B
(ii) Skeletal structure

F
B
F

(iii) TVE = 3 + 3 x 7 = 24
(iv) Placing 3 bonds
between boron and three
fluorine atoms

F
B
F

(v) Placing lone pairs on

fluorine atoms so that all of
them have octet
configuration.

:F :
B

: :

: :

:F

F:

(vi)RE = TVE TSE

TLPE
RE = 24 6 18 = 0.
In that structure all atoms
have the lowest value of
formal charge (QF = 0).
Therefore that structure is
the accepted Lewis structure
of BF3.

Example 3: NF3, nitrogen

trifluoride
(i) Central atom: N
(ii) Skeletal structure

(iii) TVE = 5 + 3 x 7 = 26
(iv) Placing 3 bonds
between nitrogen and three
fluorine atoms

(v) Placing lone pairs on

fluorine atoms so that all of
them have octet configuration

:F:

: :

: :

:F

F:

(vi) RE = TVE TSE - TLPE

RE = 26 6 18 = 2.
Placing one lone pair on
nitrogen atom.

:F:

: :

: :

:F

..
N

F:

In that structure all atoms

have the lowest value of
formal charge (QF = 0).
Therefore that structure is
the accepted Lewis structure
of NF3+.

Example 4: POF3, phosphoryl

trifluoride
(i) Central atom: P
(ii) Skeletal structure

O
F

(iii) TVE = 5 + 6 + 3 x 7 = 32
(iv) Placing 4 bonds between
phosphorus, oxygen and three flu
atoms.
O

(v) Placing
lone
pairs
on
substituents so that all of them
have octet configuration.

:O:
P

:F :

: :

: :

:F

F:

(vi) RE = TVE TSE - TLPE

RE = 32 8 24 = 0.
Since RE = 0, the P atom does not
have any lone pair.
In that structure,
QF (P) = +1; QF (O) = -1; QF(F) = 0.
The P and O atoms do not have the
lowest value of formal charge.
Lowering the formal charge of P
and O atoms is done by changing
one lone pair on O atom to bond
between P and O atoms.

:O:

: :

: :

:F

F:

:F :

In the structure obtained all

atoms have the lowest value
of formal charge. Therefore
that structure is the accepted
Lewis structure of POF3.

Example 5: nitrate ion, NO3(i) Central atom: N

(ii) Skeletal structure:

N
O

(iii) TVE = 5 + 3 x 6 (-1) = 24

(iv) Placing 3 sigma bonds between
nitrogen and three oxygen
atoms

N
O

(v) Placing lone pairs on oxygen

atoms so that all of them have
octet configuration.

:O:

N
..
..O..

..
.
.O
.
.

(vi) RE = TVE TSE - TLPE

RE = 24 6 18 = 0.
Since RE = 0, the N atom does not
have any lone pair.
In that structure, QF(N) = +2;
QF(O) = -1. The N and O atoms do
not have the lowest value of formal
charge. Lowering the formal
charge of N and O atoms is done
by changing one lone pair on one
of O atoms to bond between N
and O atoms.

:O:

N
..
..O..

..
.
.O
.
.

In that structure QF(N) = +1. Further

reduction formal charge of nitrogen atom
is impossible because the maximum
number of electron in the valence shell of
nitrogen atom is eight electrons. Therefore
that structure is the accepted Lewis
structure of NO3.

Example 6: nitrogen dioxide,

NO2
(i) Central atom: N
(ii) Skeletal structure:

N
O

(iii) TVE = 5 + 2 x 6 = 17
Placing 2 sigma bonds between
nitrogen and two oxygen atoms

N
O

(iv)Placing lone pairs on oxygen

atoms so that all of them have
octet configuration.

N
..
..O..

..
.
O
.. .

(v) RE = TVE TSE - TLPE

RE = 17 4 12 = 1.
Since RE = 1, the N atom has
one unpaired electron.
Placing unpaired electron on
nitrogen atom to give the
following structure.

.
N
..
..O..

..
.
.O
.
.

In that structure,
QF(N) = +2; QF(O) = -1. The N and
O atoms do not have the lowest
value of formal charge. Lowering
the formal charge of N and O
atoms is done by changing one lone
pair on one of O atoms to bond
between N and O atoms.

.
N
..
O..

..
.
.O
.
.

In that structure QF(N) = +1.

Further reduction formal charge
of nitrogen atom is impossible
because the maximum number
of electron in the valence shell of
nitrogen atom is eight electrons.
Therefore that structure is the
accepted Lewis structure of NO2.

Summary
1. A chemical bonding that result when
atoms share electrons is called covalent
bonding or covalent bond.
2. The covalent bonding may be single,
double or triple bond.
3. Double consists of 1 and 1 bonds.
4. Triple bonds consists of 1 and 2
bonds.