PRACTICAL AVO

Part 1 Rock Physics &

Fluid Replacement Modeling

Theory 1-1

Introduction
AVO stands for Amplitude Variations with Offset,
Offset or Amplitude Versus
Offset.
Offset
The AVO technique uses the amplitude variations of prestack seismic
reflections to predict reservoir fluid effects.
In this course, we will look at AVO modeling, reconnaissance and
inversion techniques.
Before discussing AVO,
AVO we will have a look at the essentials of rock
physics.

Theory 1-2

Basic Rock Physics

The AVO response is dependent on the properties of P-wave velocity (VP),
S-wave velocity (VS), and density ( ) in a porous reservoir rock. As shown
below, this involves the matrix material, the porosity, and the fluids filling
the pores:

Theory 1-3

Density
Density effects can be modeled with the following equation:

sat m(1 ) w Sw hc(1 Sw )

where: density,

porosity,
Sw water saturation ,
sat,m,hc ,w saturated, matrix,
hydrocarbon , water subscripts.
This is illustrated in the next
graph.

Theory 1-4

Theory 1-5

Velocity
Unlike density, which is simply mass divided by unit volume, velocity
involves the deformation of a rock as a function of time. Let us first
consider the ways in which a square of rock can be moved or deformed:

(a) Contraction

(b) Lengthening
(e) Shear

(c) Rotation

(d) Translation

Theory 1-6

Stress and Strain

In the previous slide, cases (a), (b), and (e) are called strains,
strains since the
rock changes its size or shape, but (c) and (d) are simply displacements.
The forces that create this change are called stresses. Lets look at (a)
and (e) in more detail:

For the compressive case, taking

the ratio of the two squares leads
to a strain of (ux/x + uy/y)

For the shear case, taking

the ratio of the two squares leads
to a strain of (ux/y +Theory
uy/x) 1-7

Hookes Law
Small stresses and strains (the linear case) are related by Hookes Law:
Law

p ce
where: p = stress = force per unit area,
c = an elastic constant,
and:
e = strain

For a pure compressive stress [case (a)], the elastic constant is called
the bulk modulus,
modulus K.
For a pure shear stress [case (e)], the elastic constant is called the shear
modulus,
modulus .

Theory 1-8

The Stress Tensor

There are 9 possible stresses on a cube of rock, but only 6 are
independent, since: pxy = pyx, pxz = pzx, and pyz = pzy. This is shown below,
both mathematically and physically.

p xx

p p yx
p zx

p xy
p yy
p zy

p xz

p yz
p zz

Theory 1-9

The Strain Tensor

As with stress, there are 9 possible strains on a cube of rock, but only 6
are independent, since: exy = eyx, exz = ezx, and eyz = ezy. This is shown
below in mathematical form. Note that the terms are similar to that shown
on the previous slide for the 2D case:

exx

exy

e eyx
ezx

eyy
ezy

exz

1
eyz
2

ezz
1

2

u x
x
u x u y

y
x
u x u z

z
x

1 u x u y

2 y
x
u y
y
1 u y u z

2 z
y

2
1

u x u z

z
x
u y u z

z
y

u z

Theory 1-10

The Generalized Stress-Strain

Relation
The generalized relationship between stress and strain in the full
anisotropic elastic case involves 21 components in the elastic modulus
matrix,
matrix as shown below. Notice that the matrix is symmetrical around the
main diagonal:

p xx
p
yy

C11
C
12

p zz C13

p yz C14
p xz C15

p xy C16

C12

C13

C14

C15

C22

C23

C24

C25

C23
C24

C33
C34

C34
C44

C35
C45

C25
C26

C35
C36

C45
C46

C55
C56

C16 exx

C26 e yy
C36 ezz

e
C46 yz
C56 exz

C66 exy

Theory 1-11

The Isotropic Stress-Strain Relation

For the isotropic case, the situation is much simpler, involving only two
unique values, which are called the Lam parameters and :

p xx
p
yy
p zz

p yz
p xz

0
0

p xy

0
2

2 0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

exx

e yy
ezz

e yz
exz

exy

Theory 1-12

Deriving the Velocities

Transforming the static stress-strain relationship into the dynamic effects
of velocity involves two steps:
- introducing momentum via Newtons law:
law F = ma
- introducing density, since mass is the product of density times
volume.
The derivation will not be done here, but the final form is the wave
equation:
equation

2u 2u 2u
1 2u
2 2 2 2
2
x
y
z
V t

where : V velocity , a function of , , and

Theory 1-13

Velocity Equations using and

Here are the equations for velocity derived in their most basic form using
the Lam coefficients:
coefficients

2
VP

Vs

where : , the Lame parameters

and : density.
Theory 1-14

Velocity Equations using K and

Another common way of writing the velocity equations is with bulk and
shear modulus:
modulus

4
K
3
VP

Vs

where : K the bulk modulus,

2

3
and the shear modulus
=2nd Lame parameter

Theory 1-15

Poissons Ratio
A common way of looking at the ratio of VP to VS is to use Poissons ratio,
ratio
defined as:

2

2 2
where :

VP

VS

The inverse to the above formula, allowing you to derive VP or VS from

, is given by:

2 2

2 1

Theory 1-16

Poissons Ratio
There are several values of Poissons ratio and VP/VS
ratio that should be noted:
If VP/VS = 2, then = 0
If VP/VS = 1.5, then = 0.1 (Gas Case)
Case
If VP/VS = 2, then = 1/3 (Wet Case)
Case
If VP/VS = , then = 0.5 (VS = 0)
0
A plot of Poissons ratio versus velocity ratio is shown on the next
slide.

Theory 1-17

Vp/Vs vs Poisson's Ratio

0.5

Poisson's Ratio

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0
Gas Case

Wet Case

10

Vp/Vs

Theory 1-18

Velocity in Porous Rocks

Velocity effects can be modeled by the bulk average equation as seen
below and in the next figure:

t a t m(1 ) tw Sw t hc(1 Sw )
where : t 1/ V
Unfortunately, the above equation does not hold for gas sands, and
this lead to the development of other equations.

Theory 1-19

Velocity vs Sw with Volume Avg. Eq.

Por = 33% , Voil = 1300 m/s, Vgas = 300 m/s

Velocity (m/sec)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
0
Oil

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Gas

Water Saturation

Theory 1-20

Other empirical equations have been proposed:

VP (1 )2 Vm Vfl

Raymer et al.

VP ( km / s ) 5.59 6.93 2.18C

VS ( km / s ) 3.52 4.91 1.89C

Han et al, where: C = Volume Clay Content
However, the best fit to observation has been obtained with the BiotGassmann equations.
equations

Theory 1-21

The Biot-Gassmann Equations

Independently, Gassmann (1951) and Biot (1956), developed the theory of
wave propagation in fluid saturated rocks, by deriving expressions for the
saturated bulk and shear modulii, and substituting into the regular
equations for P- and S-wave velocity:

VP

K sat

4
sat
3
sat

Vs

sat
sat

Note that sat is found using the volume average equation discussed
earlier.

Theory 1-22

Biot-Gassmann - Shear Modulus

In the Biot-Gassmann equations, the shear modulus does not change for
varying saturation at constant porosity:

sat dry
where :

dry

shear modulus of saturated rock

sat
shear modulus of dry rock

Theory 1-23

Biot-Gassmann - Saturated Bulk Modulus

The Biot-Gassmann bulk modulus equation is as follows:

K sat K dry

K dry 2
(1
)
Km

1 K dry

2
K fl
Km
Km

(1)

Mavko et al, in The Rock Physics Handbook,

Handbook re-arranged the above
equation to give a more intuitive form:

K dry
K sat
K fl

K m K sat K m K dry ( K m K fl )

(2)

Where sat = saturated rock, dry = dry frame, m = rock matrix, fl = fluid,
and = porosity.
Theory 1-24

The Saturated Bulk Modulus (Ksat) is affected by:

Rock frame bulk modulus (Kdry)

Porosity
Fluid bulk modulus (Kfl)
- Saturation
- Temperature
- Pore Pressure
Effective Pressure
- Overburden Pore pressure
Mineral bulk modulus

Theory 1-25

Biot-Gassmann - Shear Bulk Modulus

& Density
Saturated Shear Modulus ( sat)
Is Equal to Rock frame shear modulus ( dry)
Porosity
Effective Pressure
Overburden Pore pressure
Saturated Density ( sat) depends on
Rock matrix density ( m)
Porosity
Fluid density
- Saturation
- Temperature
- Pore Pressure

Theory 1-26

The Rock Matrix Bulk Modulus

We will now look at how to get estimates of the various bulk modulus
terms in the Biot-Gassmann equations, starting with the bulk modulus
of the solid rock matrix. Values will be given in gigaPascals (GPa),
(GPa)
which are equivalent to 1010 dynes/cm2.

The bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix, Km is usually taken from
published data that involved measurements on drill core samples.
Typical values are:

Ksandstone = 40 GPa,
Klimestone = 60 GPa.
Theory 1-27

The Fluid Bulk Modulus

The fluid bulk modulus can be modeled using the following equation:

1
Sw 1 Sw

K fl K w
K hc
bulk modulus of water ,
w
bulk modulus of hydrocarbon.

where : K
K

hc

Equations for estimating the values of brine, gas, and oil bulk modulii
are given in Batzle and Wang, 1992, Seismic Properties of Pore Fluids,
Fluids
Geophysics, 57, 1396-1408. Typical values are:

Kgas = 0.021 GPa, Koil = 0.79 GPa, Kw = 2.38 GPa

Theory 1-28

Estimating Kdry
For known VS and VP, Kdry can be calculated by first calculating Ksat
and then using Mavkos equation.
equation
For known VP, but unknown VS, Kdry can be estimated (Gregory, 1977) by
assuming the dry rock Poissons ratio dry. Gregory shows that equation
(1) can be rewritten as:

K dry 2
)
Km

1 K dry

2
K fl
Km
Km
(1

M sat M dry

where : M sat K sat 4 / 3 ,

M dry K dry 4 / 3 SK dry ,
and : S

3(1 dry )
(1 dry )

Theory 1-29

Estimating Kdry
After a lot of algebra, the previous equation can be written as the
following quadratic equation for a term that involves Kdry. Solving for
gives the solution.

a 2 b 0
where : the Biot coefficient 1

K dry
Km

a S 1,
Km

b S
1 S sat
K

Km
fl

M
c S sat
Km

Km

K 1
fl

Theory 1-30

Porosity Change
Porosity affects the dry rock bulk modulus, and this effect can be
computed by using the following equation:

1
1

K P K dry K m
where: KP = pore bulk modulus
If we assume that the pore bulk modulus stays constant for a range of
porosities, but the dry rock bulk modulus changes as a function of
porosity, we can compute a new dry rock bulk modulus for a different
porosity using the following re-arranged version of the above equation:

1
K dry _ new

new
1

KP Km
Theory 1-31

Data Examples
In the next few slides, we will look at the computed responses for both a
gas-saturated sand and an oil-saturated sand using the Biot-Gassmann
equation.
equation
We will look at the effect of saturation on both velocity (VP and VS) and
Poissons Ratio.
Ratio
Keep in mind that this model assumes that the gas is uniformly
distributed in the fluid. Patchy saturation provides a different function.
(See Mavko et al: The Rock Physics Handbook.)
Handbook

Theory 1-32

Velocity vs Sw - Gas Case, Por = 33%

Ks = 40, Kgas = .021, Kdry = 3.25, Mu = 3.3 GPa

Velocity (m/s)

2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
0

0.1

0.2
Vp

0.3

0.4
Vs

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Sw

Theory 1-33

Poisson's Ratio vs Water Saturation

Gas Case
Poisson's Ratio

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Poisson's Ratio

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Sw

Theory 1-34

EFFECT OF WATER SATURATION

Gas Sand ( Phi = 33% )

0.5

0.4

100
0.3
99

POISSON'S
RATIO

98

0.2

96
94
90
75
50 0

0.1

0
0

P-WAVE VELOCITY (km/sec)

Another way of displaying the data is on a two parameter

plot. Here, Poissons ratio is plotted against P-wave velocity.
Theory

1-35

Velocity vs Sw - Oil Case

Porosity = 33%, Koil = 1.0 MPa

Velocity (m/s)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
0

0.1
Vs

0.2
Vp

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Sw

Theory 1-36

Poisson's Ratio vs Water Saturation

Oil Case

Poisson's Ratio

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Poisson's Ratio

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Sw

Theory 1-37

The Mudrock Line

The mudrock line is a linear relationship between VP and VS
derived by Castagna et al (1985):

VP 1.16VS 1360m/s
Note that for a constant Poissons ratio,
ratio the intercept is zero:

2 2
VP
VS
2 1
This will be illustrated in the next few
slides.

Theory 1-38

ARCOs original mudrock derivation

(Castagna et al, Geophysics, 1985)

Theory 1-39

The Mudrock Line

6000
5000
Mudrock Line

4000
3000
Gas Sand

VP (m/s)
2000
1000
0
0

1000

VS(m/s)

2000

3000

4000

Theory 1-40

The Mudrock Line

6000
5000

= 1/3

Mudrock Line

or
VP/VS = 2

4000
3000

Gas Sand

VP (m/s)
2000
1000
0
0

1000

VS(m/s)

2000

3000

4000

Theory 1-41

The Mudrock Line

6000
5000

= 1/3

Mudrock Line

or
VP/VS = 2

4000
3000

Gas Sand

VP (m/s)
2000

= 0.1

or
VP/VS = 1.5

1000
0
0

1000

VS(m/s)

2000

3000

4000

Theory 1-42

Finally, here is a display of the Mudrock line and the dry

rock line on a Poissons ratio versus P-wave velocity plot.

Theory 1-43

Tips for Using of Gassmanns

Equation
Km: Mineral Term

Text book values have been measured on pure mineral

samples (crystals).

Mineral values can be averaged using Reuss averaging to

estimate Km for rocks composed of mixed lithologies.

Kdry: Rock Frame

Represents the incompressibility of the rock frame (including

cracks and pores).

Often pressure dependent due to cracks closing with increased

effective pressure.

Difficult to obtain accurate values in many cases.

Laboratory measurements of representative core plugs under
reservoir pressure may be the best source of data.

Theory 1-44

CAUTIONS:
Rocks with large Km and Kdry values (most carbonates)
appear insensitive to saturation changes in Gassmann theory.
Gassmann assumed that pore pressure remains constant
during wave propagation. This implies fluids are mobile
between pores and all stress is carried by Kdry.
This assumption is violated at high frequencies in highly
variable and compressible pore systems.
Carbonates with an abundance of crack-type pores and
heterogeneous pore systems are not suitable for standard Gassmann
theory.

Theory 1-45

Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)

Estimates VP, VS and density changes that occur when saturation
changes.
FRM requires:
Top and bottom depth of the reservoir
P wave velocity log
Porosity and/or density information
Shear wave velocity information (log or estimate)
Saturation information (consistent with input well logs)
Rock matrix information (from mineral tables)
Fluid properties (From B-W fluid calculator)

Theory 1-46

Input P wave and Density Information:

FRM operates on the log data on a sample by sample basis.
Areas with low porosity, or high shale content should be excluded using
gamma ray, density or porosity cut-offs
Density and porosity information are required. This information must be
consistent.
FRM can accept:
- Density log with saturation data, matrix and fluid densities (porosity
is calculated)
- Porosity log with saturation data, matrix and fluid densities (density
log is calculated)
- Density and porosity logs with saturation data and fluid densities
(matrix densities are calculated)
FRM can be sensitive to poor quality or inconsistent log data.

Theory 1-47

Shear Wave Information:

Shear wave information is required to calculate Kdry from the saturated P
wave log information.
Shear wave information can come from:
Dipole Shear wave sonic logs
Estimated S-wave velocity logs using the ARCO mudrock line
Dry rock Poissons ratio (try values from .12 to .25 for sandstones)
The Mudrock line underestimates S wave velocities in unconsolidated,
highly porous sands. This may result in incorrect estimates of the dry
rock Poissons ratio and Kdry.
In that case, suggest: replace the estimated S wave velocities for these
sands in a synthetic S wave log with a VP/VS of 2.0.

Theory 1-48

Water Saturation Information:

Water saturation for the initial reservoir conditions may be provided as a
constant value or as a log.
Saturation information must agree with the recorded sonic log and
density values.
The sonic tool measures the fastest travel path from source to receiver.
In many cases, the sonic velocity represents the flushed well bore
annulus rather than the hydrocarbon saturation formation.
Petrophysicists can provide water saturation logs that represent the
conditions of the invaded region.
Flushed regions often exhibit patchy saturation.

Theory 1-49

Theory 1-50

Detailed Steps Assuming Castagnas Equation for

Wet Sands:
1) Calculate density for 100% brine saturation:

wet br m 1

2) Calculate input P wave modulus:

M VP
2

3) Calculate matrix P wave modulus:

4
Mm Km m
3

Theory 1-51

4) Adjust P wave modulus to 100% water:

M
Kfl
Kbr
d

Mm M *( Mm Kfl ) *( Mm Kbr )
Mwet d *

Mm
1 d

5) Calculate VP_wet

VPwet

Mwet
wet

6) Calculate VS_wet from VP_wet

VS wet Ac VPwet Bc
7) Calculate VS_input from VS_wet

wet
VS VSwet *

Theory 1-52

8) Calculate K and m from input data:

VS * ;
2

K *VP

4
*
3

9) Obtain Kdry:

K
Kfl
a

Km K
* ( Km Kfl )
a
Kdry Km *
1 a
10) Calculate Ksat with new fluid:

Kdry out
Kfl out
a
out
out
Km Kdry
*( Km Kfl out )

K out Km *

a
1 a

Theory 1-53

11) Get new density:

out

fl

out

out

m *(1

out

12) Finally the new velocities!

VP

out

4 out

3
;
out

K out

VS

out

out
out

Theory 1-54

Quality Control of the FRM Result

Check dry rock Poissons ratio of first sample on last FRM panel.
Use QC plot option on FRM final panel to produce displays.
Display error log to check for reported problems.
Dry rock Poissons ratio should be:
Clastics
Limestones
Dolomites

Range
0.05 to 0.25
0.25 to 0.35
0.16 to 0.32

Mean
0.31
0.27

Dry rock bulk modulus should be:

Clastics
Limestones
Dolomites

Range
2 to 20
25 to 60
25 to 60

Mean
38
45

Theory 1-55

When problems occur, check for the following:

Noisy log data (try filter and resample)
Saturation data not representative (try Sw = 100%)
Shear data not representative (try VP/VS = 2.0)
Low porosity and shaly zones (Use exclusions and copy from input
log)

Theory 1-56

The Fizz Water Issue

When multiple pore fluids are present, Kfl is usually calculated
by a Reuss averaging technique:

S w So S g
1

K fl K w K o K g

This averaging
technique assumes
uniform fluid
distribution!
-Gas and liquid must
be evenly distributed
in every pore.

Bulk modulus (Gpa)

This method heavily biases compressibility of the combined

fluid to the most compressible phase.
Kfl vs Sw and Sg

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

0.25

0.5

0.75

Theory 1-57

Water saturation (fraction)

Patchy Saturation
When fluids are not uniformly mixed, effective modulus values cannot
be estimated from Reuss averaging.
Non-uniform (or patchy) fluid distributions are defined relative to
permeability, fluid viscosity and frequency bandwidth (scale dependent:
millimeters for logs and meters for seismic).
When:

Patch Length

Kw
f

Where:

= Permeability
Kw = Bulk modulus of the most viscous phase.

f = Signal frequency
= Viscosity of the most viscous phase

Uniform averaging of fluids does not apply.

Theory 1-58

Patchy Saturation:
When patch sizes are large, with respect to the seismic wavelength,
Voigt averaging gives the best estimate of Kfl (Domenico, 1976).

Kfl SwKw SoKo SgKg

When patch sizes are of intermediate size, Gassmann substitution
should be performed for each patch area and a volume average
should be made (Dvorkin et al, 1999).
This can be approximated by using a power-law averaging technique
(Brie et al, 1995):

K fl K w K g S w K g
e

Theory 1-59

Patchy Saturation:
Gassmann predicted velocities
Unconsolidated sand matrix
Porosity = 30%
100% Gas to 100% Brine saturation

Vp (km/s)

2.5
2.3
Patchy
Voigt
Reuss

2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
0

0.25

0.5

0.75

Water Saturation (fraction)

Theory 1-60

According to a paper by Han and Batzle, The Leading

Edge, April, 2002:

the Fizz Water effect is greatly dependent on the pressure of the

formation.

Theory 1-61

Note the change of Fluid Modulus as a function of pressure.

Theory 1-62

Theory 1-63

Conclusions
An understanding of rock physics is crucial for the interpretation of
AVO anomalies.
The volume average equation can be used to model density in a water
sand, but this equation does not match observations for velocities in
a gas sand.
The Biot-Gassmann equations match observations well for
unconsolidated gas sands.
When dealing with more complex porous media with patchy
saturation, or fracture type porosity (e.g. carbonates), the BiotGassmann equations do not hold.
The ARCO mudrock line is a good empirical tool for the wet sands
and shales.

Theory 1-64