Bài 4 - Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed) (2008)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)
Ng Khnh Hiu

Introduction (1/2)
-
Lanchester had discovered that all flight vehicles possess certain natural frequencies or
motions when disturbed from their equilibrium flight.
The basic flight dynamics modes of an aircraft are: the Phugoid mode, the Short-period
mode, the Dutch roll mode, and the Spiral divergence mode.
The longitudinal motion consists of two distinct oscillations: the long-period oscillation
(Phugoid mode), and the short-period oscillation (Short-period mode).
Oscillating motions can be described by two parameters: the period of time required for
one complete oscillation; the time required to damp to half-amplitude or time to double the
amplitude.
The phugoid or long-period is the one in which there is a large-amplitude variation of

airspeed, pitch and flight path angle, and altitude but almost no angle-of-attack variation.
It is really a slow interchange of kinetic energy (velocity) and potential energy (altitude)
about some equilibrium energy level. Typically, the period is 20-60 seconds.
The period is so long that the pilot usually correct for this motion without being aware
that the oscillation even exists.
Ng Khnh Hiu

Introduction (2/2)
-
The short-period mode is very fast, usually heavily damped, oscillation with a period of a
few seconds. The motion is a rapid pitching of the aircraft about the center of gravity.
The oscillation is essentially an angle of attack variation. The time to damp the amplitude
to one-half of its value is usually on the order of 1 second.
In this chapter, we examine the longitudinal motion of an airplane disturbed

from its equilibrium state.
Ng Khnh Hiu
Second-order differential equations (1/7)

-
Many physical systems can be modeled by second-order differential equations (ex., control
servomotors, special cases of aircraft dynamics, etc.).
Examine the motion of a mechanical system composed of a mass, a spring, and a damping
device: the spring provides a linear restoring force that is proportional to the extension of the
spring and the damping device provides a damping force that is proportional to the velocity
of the mass.
d 2 x c dx k
1
F(t)
m
dt 2 m dt m
where
(1)
m: the mass,
c: the damping coefficient,
k: the spring constant,
F(t): the forcing function.
(1) is a nonhomogeneous, second-order differential equation with constant coefficients.

The general solution of (1) is the sum of the homogeneous (xcf(t)) and particular solution (xp(t)) of (1).
Ng Khnh Hiu

-
The homogeneous solution of (1) is the solution of the equation (1) when the right-hand side
of this equation is zero.
d 2 x c dx k
x0
dt 2 m dt m
(2)
(2) is called a second-order homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
-
The equation (2) is solved by first letting x = A.et, and then finding two linearly independent
solution (say x1(t) and x2(t)) such that x = C1x1(t) + C2x2(t) for constants C1 and C2.
x Ae
t
x A e
x A 2e t
c
k
0
m
m
(3)
(3) is the characteristic equation of the equation (2). The roots of this equation are called
the characteristic roots or eigenvalues of the system.
2
1,2
Ng Khnh Hiu
c
k
c

2m
m
2m
c 2m
Case 1:
the roots are 2 distinct negative real roots
This type of motion is referred to as an overdamped motion (it means that the motion will die
out exponentially with time).
2
1,2
c 2m
Case 2:
c
k
c
2m
m
2m
k
x cf (t) C1.e 1t C2 .e 2 t
the roots are 2 distinct complex roots
This type of motion is referred to as a damped sinusoid having a natural frequency :
1,2
Ng Khnh Hiu
c
k c
i
2m
m 2m
x cf
-c t
(t) e 2m
where
C1.cost
k c
m 2m
.sin
t

2

Proofs:
Ng Khnh Hiu

Case 3:
c 2m
single real root
This particular motion is referred to as the critically damped motion. It represents the
boundary between the overdamped exponential motion and the damped sinusoidal motion.
1,2
c
2m
x cf (t) C1 C 2 t .e t
ccr 2 km
The damping constant for this case is called the critically damping constant:
The damping constant for oscillatory motion can be specified in terms of the critically damping:
c ccr
where
: the damping ratio
For the undamped oscillation (c = 0), the natural frequency is called the undamped natural
frequency (n):
k
n
m
Ng Khnh Hiu

-
The particular solution (xp(t)) is a solution that when

substituted into the left-hand side of the differential
equation yields the nonhomogeneous or right-hand
side of the differential equation.
The method for finding a particular integral is rather

crude (it involves trial and error and educated
guesswork). Hence, we try solutions which are of
the same general form as the F(t) on the right-hand
side of the differential equation.
The general solution of a second order linear

nonhomogeneous equation is the sum of it particular
integral and the complementary function:
x(t) x p (t) x cf (t)
When solving the ODE, if the nonhomogeneous term F(t) appears in the complementary function
use as a trial particular integral t times what would otherwise be used.
Ng Khnh Hiu
10

-
Since both the damping ratio and the undamped natural frequency are specified as functions of
the system physical constants (ex., k, c, m), we can rewrite the differential equation in terms of
the damping ratio and the undamped natural frequency:
d2x
2
dt 2
dx
xn2 (t)
f
dt
(4)
(4) is the standard form of a second-order differential equation with constant coefficients.
-
The equation (4) could be developed using any one of an almost limitless number of physical
systems. For example, a torsional spring-mass-damper equation is given by:
k
n
d
d
n2 (t)
f
n
2
dt
dt
where
ccr 2 kI
c
ccr
(c, k, and I are the torsional damping coefficient, torsional spring constant, and moment of inertia)
Ng Khnh Hiu

Ng Khnh Hiu
11
12
Pure pitching motion (1/7)

-
It is the case in which the airplanes center of gravity is constrained to move in a straight line at
a constant speed, but the aircraft is free to pitch about its center of gravity.
The equation governing this motion is

obtained from Newtons second law. And for
this restricted motion, the variables are the
angle of attack, pitch angle, the time rate of
change of these variables, and the elevator
angle. But,

q
-
M fn,
,
q,
The Taylor series expansion:

M
M
M g M
M
g q

q
e
gg
where M q
Ng Khnh Hiu
M q M g M
e M e
M
M
M
I y , M g g I y, M y I , M
q
(5)
M
I
ye
13

-
Eq. (5) is a non-homogeneous second-order differential equation, having constant coefficients.
Eq. (5) is similar to a torsional spring-mass-damper system with a forcing function: the static
stability of the airplane can be thought of as the equivalent of an aerodynamic spring, while the
aerodynamic damping terms are similar to a torsional damping device.
2 M q M g M 0
(6)
Eq. (6) is the characteristic equation of Eq. (5). This equation can be compared with the
standard equation of a second-order system:
n M
2 2 n n2 0
where
M q M g
2 M
(7)
Eq. (7) is the expression of Eq. (6) in terms of the standard equation of a second-order system
with is the damping ratio and n is the undamped natural frequency.
Ng Khnh Hiu

-
14
2 1
n
n
1,2
The roots of Eq. (7) are:
2
1,2 n in 1
Case 1:
> 1 1,2 are two distinct roots: overdamped motion

t
trim
Case 2:
1
1t 1
e 1
e2 t
1 1
2
2
2 1
2 1
0 < < 1 1,2 are two distinct complex roots: damped sinusoidal motion
t
e n t
1
sin
2
trim
1
Case 3:
1
t2
where
tan
1-1
(9)
= 1 1,2 are identical roots: critically damped motion

t
trim
Ng Khnh Hiu
(8)
1 1
t en
n t
(10)
15
trim
n t
Ng Khnh Hiu

Proofs (1/2):
Ng Khnh Hiu
16

Proofs (2/2):
Ng Khnh Hiu
17
18

-
The roots of the characteristic equation tell us what type of response our airplane will have.
The period of the oscillation is related to the imaginary part of the root as follows:
Period =
where n 1 2
The rate of growth or decay of the oscillation is determined by the sign of the real part of the
complex root. A negative real part produces decaying oscillation, whereas a positive real part
causes the motion to grow.
-
The expression for the time for doubling or halving of the amplitude is:
t double or t halve =
0.693
n
and the number of cycles for doubling or halving the amplitude is:
N(cycles)double or halve = 0.110
Ng Khnh Hiu

t
Proofs:
trim
e n t
1 2
ln(0.5) 0.693 t
sin
1
t2
19
ln
halve
sin
where
1
t2
tan
1 2
1-1
halve
= 0.1
sin
ln
1
t 2
1
= 0.115
= 0.9
n x [Period]
Ng Khnh Hiu
0.693
n

Example problem 1:
20
1 slug = 14.5939 kg; 1 Ibs = 0.4536 kg; 1 ft = 0.3048 m;
o = 1.225 kg/m3; uo = 25 ft/s
A flat plate lifting surface is mounted on a

hollow slender rod as illustrated in the figure.
The slender rod is supported in the wind
tunnel by a transverse rod. A low friction
bearing is used so that the slender rod-flat
plate system can rotate freely in pitch.
To have the center of gravity located at the
pivot point ballast is placed inside the slender
tube forward of the pivot.
a. Establish the equation of motion of the
rod-flat plate system in terms of pitch
angle ().
b. Estimate the damping ratio (), the
undamped natural frequency (n), and the
damped natural frequency () of the tubeflat plate assembly.
Ng Khnh Hiu
The following assumptions are made in the analysis:

- Neglect the mass of the slender rod.
- Neglect the contribution of pitching moment
contribution due to the slender rod.
- Neglect the mechanical friction of the bearings.
21
Solution (1/3):
a.
M = Iy
..
M
M
I
q
q y
where
M M I
y
gg
M q M = 0
M
M
M=
q
q
.
- The contribution due to is not included because this effect is due primarily to the
interaction of the wing wake on an aft surface.
- Because the center of gravity is constrained the angle of attack, , and the pitch angle, ,
g
are the same; the pitching rate, q, is the same as
This equation can be expressed in terms of the system damping ratio, and the systems
undamped natural frequency as follows:
gg
+ 2 n + n2 = 0
n M
where
M q
2 M
2
The damped natural frequency of the system:

Ng Khnh Hiu
= n
M q
2
1
M
2
22
Solution (2/3):
b.
The derivative M can be estimated from the following expression:

M = l.Lift l.C L ..Q.S
M =
M
lCQS
L
Iy
Iy
The derivative Mq can be estimated from the following equation:

ql
.Q.S
u
o
M q = l.CL .
CL
Mq =
l
M
I y lC L QS I y
q
u o
0.114
6.1944 (rad/s)
n
Cl
4.71 (/rad)
1+Cl AR
I y I y_plate I y_ballast 0.01899 (kg.m )

Q
Ng Khnh Hiu
1 2
u o 35.5644 (N/m 2 )
2
6.1541 (rad/s)
Period = 1.021 (s)

t halve 0.98 (s)
M 38.3708 (/s )
M q 1.4121 (/s)
N halve 0.96 (cycle)
23
Solution (3/3):
b.
(t)
o
t (s)
Ng Khnh Hiu

Example problem 2:
The dimensional longitudinal stability
derivatives of De Havilland Canada airplane
estimated from the formulas in chapter 3 are:
M 0.2805 (/s 2 )
M g 0.5412 (/s)
M q 1.5817 (/s)
M e 4.7515 (cycle)
a. In case of pure pitching motion, establish
the equation of motion of De Havilland
Canada airplane in terms of the change in
angle of attack ().
b. Estimate the damping ratio (), and the
undamped natural frequency (n) of this
airplane for pure pitching motion.
Ng Khnh Hiu
24
25
Solution (1/2):
a.
For pure pitching motion the equation of De Havilland Canada airplane in terms of the
change in angle of attack is:
gg
M q M g M
e M e
gg
2.1229 + 0.2805 4.7515 e
b.
The damping ratio:
M q M
2 M
2.0042
overdamped motion
The undamped natural frequency:

n M 0.5296 (rad/s)
Ng Khnh Hiu
26
Solution (2/2):
(t)
trim
t (s)
Ng Khnh Hiu

Stick fixed longitudinal motion (1/7)
-
The longitudinal motion of an airplane without control input (controls fixed) disturbed from its
equilibrium flight conditions is characterized by two oscillatory modes of motion: one mode is
lightly damped and has a long period (the long-period or phugoid mode); the second is heavily
damped and has a very short period (the short-period mode).
Ng Khnh Hiu
27
28

-
The linearized longitudinal equations developed in chapter 3 can be written as a set of first-order
differential equations, called the state-space or state-variable equations and represented
mathematically as:
x Ax + B
where
x: the state vector

: the control vector
A, B: matrices contain the aircraft's
dimensional stability derivatives
(11)
The linearized longitudinal set of equations:
u X u u + X w w g.cos o e+ X e T X T
w Zu u + Z w w + u o q g.sin o e+ Z e T Z T
q M u M Zu u + M w M Z w w + M q M uo q + M
w
w
q
Ng Khnh Hiu
M
Z
e
TM
e
w e
M Z T
w T
29

-
Rewriting the equation in the state-space form yields:
u
w
x=
q

e
=
X e
X T
Ze
ZT
B=
M M Z e
e
w
Xu
Xw
Zu
Zw
uo
A= M M Z
u
u
w
M w M Zw
w
Mq M u o
w
M T M ZT
g
0
0
Note that the force derivatives Zq and Z usually are neglected because they contribute
w
very little to the aircraft response.
Ng Khnh Hiu

-
The homogeneous solution to Eq. (11) can be

obtained by assuming a solution of the form:
x = x r er t
(12)
Substituting Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields:
r I A x r 0
where I is the identity matrix
The roots r of equation:
(13)
1
0
I=
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
r I A 0
are called the characteristics roots or eigenvalues.
Ng Khnh Hiu
30
31

-
The eigenvectors for the system can be determined once the eigenvalues are known from the
following equation:
jI A Pij 0
(14)
where Pij is the eigenvector corresponding to the jth eigenvalue.

-
The set of equations making up Eq. (14) is linearly dependent and homogeneous; therefore, the
eigenvectors cannot be unique.
One relatively straightforward technique for finding the eigenvectors is the following:
Ng Khnh Hiu
32

-
Because the long-period mode is characterized by changes in pitch attitude , altitude, and
velocity at a nearly constant angle of attack, an approximation to the long-period mode can be
obtained by neglecting the pitching moment equation and assuming that the change in angle of
attack is 0.

Ng Khnh Hiu
w
uo
= 0
w = 0
(15)

Bài 4 - Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed) (2008)

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C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

The phugoid or long-period is the one in which there is a large-amplitude variation of

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

In this chapter, we examine the longitudinal motion of an airplane disturbed

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Second-order differential equations (1/7)

(1) is a nonhomogeneous, second-order differential equation with constant coefficients.

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Second-order differential equations (2/7)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Second-order differential equations (3/7)

the roots are 2 distinct negative real roots

the roots are 2 distinct complex roots

This type of motion is referred to as a damped sinusoid having a natural frequency :

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Second-order differential equations (4/7)

single real root

: the damping ratio

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

The particular solution (xp(t)) is a solution that when

The method for finding a particular integral is rather

The general solution of a second order linear

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Second-order differential equations (6/7)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Pure pitching motion (1/7)

The equation governing this motion is

The Taylor series expansion:

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Pure pitching motion (2/7)

Eq. (5) is a non-homogeneous second-order differential equation, having constant coefficients.

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

The roots of Eq. (7) are:

> 1 1,2 are two distinct roots: overdamped motion

= 1 1,2 are identical roots: critically damped motion

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Pure pitching motion (4/7)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

Pure pitching motion (5/7)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

A flat plate lifting surface is mounted on a

The following assumptions are made in the analysis:

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

The damped natural frequency of the system:

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

The derivative M can be estimated from the following expression:

The derivative Mq can be estimated from the following equation:

I y I y_plate I y_ballast 0.01899 (kg.m )

Period = 1.021 (s)

N halve 0.96 (cycle)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

2.1229 + 0.2805 4.7515 e

The damping ratio:

The undamped natural frequency:

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)

C hc bay 2 Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed)