CHAPTER TWO: BASICS IN

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

2.1. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING: This involves

Conception,
Planning,
Design,
Construction,
Operation and
Management of an irrigation system.
An irrigation engineer is one who has a long theoretical and
practical training in planning, design, construction, operation
and management of irrigation systems.

Considerations in Planning
Irrigation Systems

i) Location:
The main point to consider in locating an
irrigation project is the need to investigate available resources in
the area e.g.
Climate,
Adequate water in quality and quantity,
Land with good agricultural potential and
Good topography,
Availability of labour (sophisticated or not),
Land tenure,
Marketing,
Transport facilities etc.

Considerations in Planning
Irrigation Systems Contd.

ii) Crops to be grown: Should be determined by available resources

as well as marketability of the crops especially in terms of what people
like to eat.
iii) Water Supply: Consider
(a)Sources of water
(b) Quantity and quality of water
c) Engineering works necessary to obtain water e.g. if underground,
pumping is needed
d) Conveyance System: can be by gravity e.g. open channels or
canals or by closed conduits e.g. pipes.
(e) Water measuring devices e.g. weirs, orifice, flumes, current meters

Other Considerations

iv) Systems of Applying Water:

e.g. Surface (90% worldwide),
Sprinkler(5%),
Trickle and Sub-irrigation(5%).

v) Water Demand: The water requirement for the given crop has to be
determined. This is by calculating the evapotranspiration (to be treated
later)

vi) Project Management: Consider how to manage the irrigation system

2.2 CROP WATER AND NET

IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS

In irrigation, it is essential to know the amount of water needed by crops.

This determines the quantity of water to be added by irrigation and rainfall
and helps in day to day management of irrigation systems.

Total water demand of crops is made up of:

i)
Crop water use:
includes evaporation
(evapotranspiration described in section 2.3 below)

and

transpiration

ii) Leaching requirement:

iii) Losses of water due to deep seepage in canals and losses due to the
inefficiency of application.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

2.3.1 DEFINITIONS

a) Evaporation: The process by which water is changed from the

liquid or solid state into the gaseous state through the transfer of
heat energy.

b) Transpiration: The evaporation of water absorbed by the crop

which is used directly in the building of plant tissue in a specified
time. It does not include soil evaporation.

c) Evapotranspiration, ET: It is the sum of the amount of water

transpired by plants during the growth process and that amount that
is evaporated from soil and vegetation in the domain occupied by the
growing crop. ET is normally expressed in mm/day.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Weather
parameters,
Crop
Characteristics,
Management and Environmental aspects are
factors affecting ET

(a) Weather Parameters:

The principal weather conditions affecting
evapotranspiration are:
Radiation,
Air temperature,
Humidity and
Wind speed.

CROP FACTORS THAT

AFFECT ET
Crop Type

Crop

Variety

Ground

of Crop

Development
Crop

Height

Stage

Crop

Roughness
Cover

Rooting Depth

Management and Environmental

Factors

(a) Factors such as soil salinity,

Poor land fertility,
Limited application of fertilizers,
Absence of control of diseases and
Pests and poor soil management
May limit the crop development and reduce soil
evapotranspiration.
Other factors that affect ET are ground cover, plant density and soil
water content. The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned
primarily by the magnitude of the water deficit and the type of soil.
Too much water will result in waterlogging which might damage the
root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
CONCEPTS

(a) Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

(ETo):
Used by FAO.
This is ET rate from a reference plant e.g. grass or alfalfa, not
short of water and is denoted as ETo. The ET of other crops can
be related to the Et of the reference plant.
ETo is a climatic parameter as it is only affected by climatic
factors.
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole
method for determining ETo. The method has been selected
because it closely approximates grass ETo at the location
evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both
physiological and aerodynamic parameters.

CROP ET UNDER STANDARD

CONDITIONS (ETc)

This refers to crop ET under standard conditions, i.e.

ET from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in
large fields, under optimum soil water conditions.

ETc can be derived from ETo using the equation:

ETc = Kc . ETo where Kc is crop coefficient

Crop Evapotranspiration under non- standard

conditions as mentioned above is called ETc
(adjusted). This refers to growth of crops under nonoptimal conditions.

DETERMINATION OF
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration

is not easy to measure.

Specific devices and accurate measurements
of various physical parameters or the soil
water balance in lysimeters are required to
determine ET. The methods are expensive,
demanding and used for research purposes.
They remain important for evaluating ET
estimates obtained by more indirect methods.

ENERGY BUDGET METHOD

This

method like the water budget

approach involves solving an equation
which lists all the sources and sinks of
thermal energy and leaves evaporation
as the only unknown. It involves a great
deal of instrumentation and is still under
active development. It is data intensive
and is really a specialist approach.

Energy Budget Method Contd.

Water Balance Method

The Water Balance or Budget Method is a measurement

of continuity of flow of water.
This method consists of drawing up a balance sheet of all
the water entering and leaving a particular catchment or
drainage basin.
The water balance equation can be written as:
ET = I + P RO DP + CR + SF + SW
Where: I is Irrigation, P is rainfall, RO is surface runoff,
DP is deep percolation, CR is capillary rise, SF and SW
are change in sub-surface flow and change in soil water
content respectively

Lysimeters For Water Balance

Method

Lysimeters are normally adopted in water balance studies.

By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and
controlling the processes that are difficult to measure, the
different terms in the soil balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy.
Using Lysimeters, crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either
disturbed or undisturbed soil.
In weighing lysimeters, water loss is directly measured by
change in mass while
In non-weighing ones, the ET for a given time is determined by
deducting the drainage water collected at the bottom of the
lysimeters, from the total water input.

Non-Weighing Lysimeter

ET Computed from
Meteorological Data:

ET is commonly computed from weather data. A large number

of empirical equations have been developed for assessing crop
or reference crop evapotranspiration from weather data. Some
of these methods include the Blaney-Criddle, Penman,
Thornthwaite, Radiation, Hargreaves, Turc and many others.
Most of these methods have been found to only work in specific
locations.
Following an Expert Consultation by Food and Agriculture
Organization in May 1990, the FAO Penman-Monteith method
is now recommended as the standard method for the definition
and computation of the reference evapotranspiration. The FAO
Penman-Monteith equation is described in the Notes.

ET Estimated from
Evaporation Pans:

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an

index of integrated effect of radiation, air temperature,
air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However,
differences in the water and cropped surface produce
significant differences in the water loss from an open
surface and the crop. The pan is used to estimate
reference ETo by observing the evaporation loss from a
water surface (Epan) and applying empirical
coefficients (Kpan)to relate pan evaporation to Eto thus:

ETo = Kp x Epan

Standard Pan: United States Class A

Pan

The most common Evaporation Pan used is the United States

Class A pan. This is made up of unpainted galvanized iron, 1.2
m in diameter and 25.4 cm deep. The bottom supported on a
wooded frame, is raised 15.24 cm above the ground surface.
The water surface is maintained between 5.0 and 7.6 cm below
the rim of the pan and is measured daily with a gauge. The
daily evaporation is computed as the difference between
observed levels corrected for any precipitation measured in an
adjacent or nearby standard rain gauge. A pan coefficient of 0.7
(0.6 - 0.8) is normally used to convert the observed value to an
estimated value for lake or reservoirs. This is because the rate
of evaporation in small areas is greater than that from large
areas.

US Class A Evaporation Pan

Evaporation
Air Flow
q conv
absorbed by
the water

Convection
qconv heats up
pan walls

Incoming Radiation
q Absorbed By
Water
Incoming
Radiation Heats
Pan Wall q rad

Conduction
Through Walls
of pan

Heat Transfer Mechanisms Involved In Heating Of Water In The Standard Pans (diameter D) And Their Walls (After Jagroop,2000).

Types of Evaporation Pans

A Comparison of Standard Open

Pans
Pan
US Class A

Australian Pan

British Tank

Dimensions

Pan Coefficient

1.2 m Diameter; 250

mm Deep

0.7 (0.6 to 0.8)

900 mm Diameter; 900

mm Deep. Large Pan:
1200 mm Diameter and
850 mm Deep

0.9 ( 0.6 to 1.2)

1.83 m Square

0.9 (Very Variable)

2.4. LEACHING REQUIREMENT

Most irrigation water contain dissolved salts.

Evaporation removes pure water leaving a
concentration of salt in soil.
Salt concentration may reach a level that is detrimental
to the growth of the crop and should be controlled. The
only practical way of achieving this is by leaching.
Leaching requirement is an extra water needed to pass
through the root zone in addition to the normal
requirement to ensure that salts are placed below the
root zone.

LEACHING REQUIREMENT
CONTD.

LR Salt Concentration in Irrigation Water (ET Rain)

Acceptable Salt Content in the Root Zone
Ec
(ET Rain)
irrig

EC
acceptable
Ec acceptable = 4 mmhos/cm. For water quality, Ec of 0.8
Mmhos/cm is medium, quality while Ec of 4 mmhos/cm is saline.

2.5. EFFECTIVE PRECIPITATION

This

is the component of rainfall that is

available to crops ie. does not runoff.
It can be estimated as 65% of total rainfall.

It

can also be estimated as the rainfall value,

which has 80% probability of being exceeded
(D80).

2.6 NET IRRIGATION

REQUIREMENT (Nir)

This is the moisture that must be supplied by irrigation to satisfy

evapotranspiration plus that needed for leaching and not supplied by
off-season storage, and the effects of precipitation and groundwater
storage.
Nir = ET + Wl

- Ws - Re

Where: Nir is the net irrigation;

ET is evapotranspiration,
Wl is leaching requirement;
Ws is off-season soil moisture carry-over.
All parameters are in mm of water.

2.7 GROSS IRRIGATION

REQUIREMENT (Gir)
Gross

Irrigation Requirement is equal to:

Net Irrigation Requirement Divided by

Irrigation Efficiency

Irrigation efficiency accounts for losses in storage and

distribution systems, losses in application systems as well
as operation and management losses.

Irrigation Efficiency depends on the Method of Applying

Irrigation Water

2.8 IRRIGATION TERMS

2.8.1.

Depth of Irrigation: This is the

depth of the readily available moisture.
This is the net depth of water normally
needed to be applied to the crops
during each irrigation

Example 1

The Moisture Content at Field Capacity of a Clay Loam Soil is 28%

by Weight While that at Permanent Wilting Point is 14% by Weight.
Root Zone Depth Is 1 m and the Bulk Density Is 1.2 g/cm 3 .
Calculate the Net and Gross Depth of Irrigation Required If the
Irrigation Efficiency Is 0.7.

Solution: Field Capacity = 28%; Permanent wilting point = 14%

i.e. Available moisture = 28 - 14 = 14% by weight i.e. Pm
Bulk density (Db) = 1.2 g/cm3
Root Zone depth (D) = 1 m = 1000 mm
Equivalent depth of available water (d) = Pm . D b . D
= 0.14 x 1.20 x 1000 mm = 168 mm
This is the net depth of irrigation.

Solution to Example 1 contd.

Gross

Water Application is equal to:

Net Irrigation/Efficiency = 84/0.7 = 120 mm

Note: This is the actual water needed to be

pumped for irrigation.
It is equivalent to:
120 /1000 mm x 10,000 m 2
1200 m 3 per hectare.

2.8.2 Irrigation Interval (II):

This

is the time between

irrigations.
Irrigation interval is equal to:

successive

Readily Available Moisture or Net Irrigation divided by

Evapotranspiration, ET
The shortest irrigation interval is normally use in
design. The irrigation interval varies with ET.
It is equivalent to Readily Available Water divided by the
Peak ET

Example 2

For the Last Example. the Peak ET is

7.5 mm/day, Determine the Shortest
Irrigation Interval.

Solution:

From Example 1, Readily

Available Moisture (RAM) = 84 mm
i.e. Shortest irrigation interval = RAM/
Peak ET = 84/7.5 = 11 days.

Irrigation Period (IP)

This

is the number of days allowed to

complete one irrigation cycle in a given
area.

Irrigation Period Contd.

Assuming water is applied in a border in a day,

the total period of irrigation is then 11 days.

10

Irrigation Interval and Period

In

irrigation scheduling, the irrigation period

should be less that the irrigation interval. This
is because if the period is not smaller, before
the latter parts of the area are to be irrigated,
the earlier irrigated areas will need fresh
irrigation.
At peak evapotranspiration (used in design),
irrigation interval should be equal to irrigation
period. i.e. Generally IP < II

2.8.4 Desired Irrigation Design

Capacity (Qc)
This

is the flow rate determined by the

water requirement, irrigation time,
irrigation period and the irrigation
application efficiency.
It is the flow rate of flow of the water
supply source e.g. pumps from a
reservoir, or a borehole required to
irrigate a given area.

Desired Irrigation Design Capacity

(Qc) Contd.

A. d
Qc
F. H . Ea
Where:
Qc is the Desired Design Capacity;
d is the Net Irrigation Depth = Readily Available Moisture;
F is the number of Days to complete the Irrigation (Irrigation Period);
H is the number of Hours the System is perated (hrs/day) and
Ea is the Irrigation Efficiency

Example 3

A 12-hectare field is to be irrigated with a sprinkler system.

The root zone depth is 0.9 m and the field capacity of the
soil is 28% while the permanent wilting point is 17% by
weight. The soil bulk density is 1.36 g/cm and the water
application efficiency is 70%. The soil is to be irrigated
when 50% of the available water has depleted. The peak
evapotranspiration is 5.0 mm/day and the system is to be
run for 10 hours in a day.

Determine: (i) The net irrigation depth

(ii) Gross irrigation ie. the depth of water to be pumped
(iii) Irrigation period
(iv) Area to be irrigated per day and (v)
the system capacity.

Solution to Example 3

Solution: Field Capacity = 28%; Permanent

Wilting Point = 17%
ie. Available Moisture = 28 - 17 = 11% , which is
Pm
Root zone depth = 0.9 m;
Bulk density = 1.36 g/cm3
Depth of Available Moisture, = Pm . Db. D
= 0.11 x 1.36 x 900 = 135 mm
Allowing for 50 % depletion of Available Moisture
before Irrigation, Depth of Readily Available Moisture
= 0.5 x 135 mm = 67.5 mm

Solution of Example 3 Contd.

i) Net irrigation depth = Depth of the Readily Available Moisture =

67.5 mm

ii) Gross Irrigation = Net irrigation

Application efficiency
= 67.5/0.7 = 96.4 mm

iii) Irrigation interval = Net irrigation or RAM

Peak ET
= 67.5/5 = 13.5 days
= 13.5 days = 13 days (more critical)
In design, irrigation interval = irrigation period
ie. irrigation period is 13 days

Solution of Example 3 Contd.

iv) Total area to be irrigated = 12 hectares

Area to be irrigated per day = Total area / irrigation period
=
12 ha/ 13 days
= 1 ha/day

v) System Capacity, Qc =

A. d
m3 /s
F. H. Ea
Area, A = 12 ha = 12 x 10000 m 2 = 120,000 m2
Net irrigation depth, d = 67.5 mm = 0.0675 m
Irrigation period , F = 13 days
Number of hours of operation, H = 10 hrs/day
Irrigation efficiency, Ea = 0.78

Solution of Example 3 Concluded

System capacity, Qc =

120,000 m2 x 0.0675 m
13 days x 10 hrs/day x 0.7
= 89.01 m 3/hr

Recall: 1 m 3 = 1000 L and 1 hr = 3600 s

ie. 89.01 m3 /hr = {89.01 x 10 3 L}/3600 secs
= 24.73 = 25 L/s
The pump to be purchased for sprinkler irrigation must
have capacity equal to or greater than 25 L/s.
Alternatively, more than one pump can be purchased.

2.9. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES

These

irrigation efficiencies are brought about

by the desire not to waste irrigation water, no
matter how cheap or abundant it is.

The objective of irrigation efficiency concept

is to determine whether improvements can be
made in both the irrigation system and the
management of the operation programmes,
which will lead to an efficient irrigation water
use.

2.9.1 Application Efficiency

Ea

Water in root zone after irrigation

Total volume of water applied

Total vol. of water applied (Vol. of Tailwater Vol. of deep percolation)

Total water applied

Ea is inadequate in describing the overall quantity of water

since it does not indicate the actual uniformity of irrigation,
the amount of deep percolation or the magnitude of
under-irrigation. See diagrams in text.

Example 4

Delivery of 10 m3/s to a 32 ha farm is continued for 4

hours. The tail water is 0.27 m3/s. Soil probing after
irrigation indicates that 30 cm of water has been
stored in the root zone. Compute the Application
Efficiency.

Solution: Total volume of water applied

= 10 m3/s x 4 hrs x 3600s/hr = 144,000 m3
Total tail water = 0.27 x 4 x 3600 = 3888 m3
Total water in root zone = 30 cm = 0.3 m x 32 ha
x 10,000 m2/ha = 96,000 m3

Solution to Example 4 Contd.

Ea

Water in root zone after irrigation

Total volume of water applied

96,000/144,000 = 66.7%.

2.9.2 Water Conveyance Efficiency

Ec

Water delivered to the Farm (Wd )

Water of water diverted from a stream, reservoir or well (Ws )

Farm
Wd
Water lost by evap
And seepage

Ws
Stream

Example 5

45 m3 of water was pumped into a farm distribution system.

38 m3 of water is delivered to a turn out (at head ditch) which
is 2 km from the well. Compute the Conveyance Efficiency.

Solution:

Ec

Water delivered to the Farm (Wd )

Water of water diverted from a stream, reservoir or well (Ws )

= 38/45 =

84%

2.9.3. Christiansen Uniformity

Coefficient (Cu)
This measures the uniformity of irrigation
Cu

/X /

100 (10
.
)

W here: / X /

mn

is the summation of deviations from the mean depth

infiltered
m is the mean depth unfiltered and
n is the number of observations.

Example 6
A

Uniformity Check is taken by probing many

stations down the border. The depths of
penetration (cm) recorded were: 6.4, 6.5, 6.5,
6.3, 6.2, 6.0, 6.4, 6.0, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 4.5, 4.9.
Compute the Uniformity Coefficient.

Solution:

Total depth of water infiltered =

76.7 cm
Mean depth = 76.7/13 = 5.9 cm

Locations

Depths (cm)

Deviations from Mean

6.4

0.5

6.5

0.6

6.5

0.6

6.3

0.4

6.2

0.3

6.0

0.1

6.4

0.5

6.0

0.1

5.8

0.1

10

5.7

0.2

11

5.5

0.4

12

4.5

1.4

13

4.9

1.0

Example 6 Concluded
/ X / = 6.2
Cu

/X /

100 (10
.
)
mn

m = 5.9 cm; n = 13
Cu 100 (10
.

This

6.2
)
5.9 13

= 92%

is a good Efficiency. 80% Efficiency is acceptable.

2.9.4 Water Storage Efficiency (Es)

Es

Volume of water in the root zone after irrigation

Volume of water needed in root zone to avoid total water moisture depletion

2.9.5

Irrigation Efficiency

Ei ( Steady state)

ET Wl Re Ws
Net Irrigation

Wi
Water diverted

ET is Evapotranspiration;
Wl is Leaching Requirement;
Re is Effective Precipitation;
Ws is change in storage;
Wi is water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.

2.10 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

This

means Predicting when to Irrigate and

how much to Irrigate
For efficient water use on the farm, the farmer
needs to be able to predict when his crops
need irrigation. This can be done by:
Observing the plants;
Keeping a Water Balance Sheet
By Measuring the Soil Moisture Content or
Computer Software

2.10.1 Observing the Plants:

This

is a direct way of knowing when the

crops need water.
The farmer observes the plants for any signs
of wilting or change in leaf colour or growth
rate.
The method is simple but its major
disadvantage is that the signs of shortage
appear after the optimum allowable depletion
has already been exceeded.

2.10.2. Keeping a Water Balance

Sheet
This

approach works on the principle that the

change in water content of the soil is represented by
the difference between water added by irrigation(or
rainfall) and the amount lost by evapotranspiration.
The records are kept for each farm and crops as
shown in Table 2.4 below.
The method requires no equipment and is easy to
operate.
It can be operated on a daily or weekly or 10 day
basis.

Table 2.3: Example of a Water Balance

Sheet
Irrigation Plan: Apply 30 mm of water at 30 mm deficit.
Date

Estimated
ET (mm)

Rainfall
(mm)

Accumulated Irrigation
Deficit (mm) Period

5.1.05

4.2

4.2

6.1.05

3.5

7.7

7.1.05

3.8

11.5

8.1.05

4.5

16.0

9.1.05

5.2

21.2

10.1.05

5.1

2.0

24.3

11.1.05

5.5

29.8

12.1.05

5.1

4.9 (34.9)

13.1.05

4.9

9.8

etc.

30.0

2.10.3

Measuring Soil Moisture

This is the best scheduling and the most widely used.

Soil moisture can be indirectly measured using devices
and instruments eg. tensiometers, resistance blocks or
neutron probes.
Direct measurement of soil moisture can be by weighing
or the gravimetric method.
These methods are either too expensive or complicated.
The simplest and most practical method is to estimate
the moisture content by the 'feel and appearance' of the
soil.
Soil is collected at the root zone and checked to guess
the right time to irrigate.

2.11 IRRIGATION WATER: SOURCES, QUALITY &

MEASUREMENT
2.11.1

Sources of Irrigation Water Supply

i) Rainfall or Precipitation: This is a practical
and dominant factor.
The supply varies with time and place e.g. while
Grenada receives
2,100 mm annual rainfall,
Antigua receives only 1,100 mm. Trinidad receives
1, 950 mm (Data supplied by Gumbs, 1987).
To be of greatest benefit for crop production, the
rainfall amount should be enough to replace water
in the root zone on a regular basis.

Mean Annual Rainfall of Caribbean

Countries
5000
4500

Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)

4500
4000
3500
3000

2500

2500

2263
1983

2000
1500

1500
1127

1000
500
0

2253
2057

1980

1971

1524
1372

1990

2054

Sources of Irrigation Water

Contd.

ii) Underground water sources: This can be shallow or

bore holes.

iii) Surface Sources: Streams, rivers, lakes, farm ponds

etc.
Streams should be gauged to ensure that there is enough
water for irrigation.
Rivers or streams can also be dammed to raise the height
of flow and make more water available for irrigation.
Farm ponds can also be dug to store water from rivers or
channels (e.g. field station) or to collect water from rainfall

Sources of Irrigation Water

Contd.
iv)

Springs and waste water e.g.

industrial water and sewage:
Determine quality before use.
(For details of harnessing water for
irrigation in the Caribbean, see Gumb's
Soil & Water Conservation Methods,
Chapter 7).

2.11.2 Irrigation Water

Quality:
Irrigation

water quality depends on

i)
Amount of suspended sediment eg.
silt content
ii) The chemical constituents of water

i) Amount of Suspended
Sediment:
The

effect of sediment may depend upon the

nature of the sediment and the characteristics and
soil conditions of the irrigated area.
Silt content in irrigation may be beneficial if it
improves the texture and fertility of say sandy soil.
It can also be detrimental if it is derived from a
sterile sub-soil, and applied to a fertile soil.

Silt accumulation can cause aggradation in

canals or distribution systems.
In sprinkler
systems, silt can cause abrasion.

ii) The Chemical Constituents

of Water:
There

are three main elements or

compounds that can cause hazards in
irrigation water. They include:
Sodium,
Boron and
Salts.

a) Salinity Hazards:

The units of salt concentration in irrigation water can be

parts per million (p.p.m), milli equivalents/litre(ME/litre) or
electrical conductivity.
On the basis of salinity, irrigation water can be classified
as C1 to C4(see chart).
They refer to low, medium, high and very high salinity
levels respectively.
While C1 water can easily be used for irrigation without
need for leaching requirement,
C4 water is not useable, except in permeable soils where
adequate leaching and drainage is possible and for
highly tolerant crops.

b) Sodium Hazard:
It

is Measured in Sodium Absorption Ratio (S.A.R).

SAR is defined as the proportion of sodium relative
to other cations.

SAR

Na
Ca Mg
2

Parameters are measured in ME/litre.

Sodium Hazard Contd.

Irrigation

Water is also divided into S1 to S4 in terms

of Sodium (SAR) Content.
S1 Water can be used readily
S2 and S3 can be used with adequate Leaching and
Drainage and addition of Organic and Chemical
amendment.
S4 Water has very high Sodium Content and is
unsuitable for irrigation except where calcium,
gypsum or other chemical amendments are possible.
(See water quality chart).

Boron
See

Table 2.4 in Note Book for

Permissible limit of Boron for several
classes of irrigation water

2.11.3 Measurement of Irrigation

Water
Water

is the most valuable asset of irrigated

agriculture and can be detrimental if used
improperly.
An accurate measurement permits an
intelligent use.
The methods to use for measurement should
depend on the flow, environmental conditions
and the degree of accuracy required.

Methods of Measuring Irrigation

Water
a)

Direct method:
Collect water in a contained of known
volume e.g. bucket. Measure the time required for water from an
irrigation source e.g. siphon to fill the bucket.
Flow rate = Volume/time m 3/hr or L/s etc.

b) Weirs: Weirs are regular notches over which water flows.

They are used to regulate floods through rivers, overflow dams
and open channels.
Weirs can be sharp or broad crested; made from concrete timber,
or metal and can be of cross-section rectangular, trapezoidal or
triangular.
Sharp crested rectangular or triangular sections are commonly
used on the farm.

Weirs Contd.

The discharge through a weir is usually expressed as:

Q = C L Hm
where Q is the discharge;
C is the coefficient dependent on the nature of weir crest and
approach conditions;
L is the length of crest;
H is the head on the crest and
m is an exponent depending on weir opening.
Weirs should be calibrated to determine these parameters
before use eg. for trapezoidal weirs(Cipoletti weir),
Q = 0.0186 L H1.5
Q is discharge in L/s;
L, H are in cm.

Methods of Measuring Irrigation

Water Contd.
c)

Orifices:
An orifice is an opening in the wall of a
tank containing water.
The orifice can be circular, rectangular, triangular or any
other shape.
The discharge through an orifice is given by:
Q =
CA 2gh
Where Q is the discharge rate;
C is the coefficient of discharge (0.6 - 0.8);
A is the area of the orifice;
g is the acceleration due to gravity and
h is the head of water over an orifice.

Methods of Measuring Irrigation

Water Contd.

d) Flumes:
Hydraulic flumes are artificial open channels or
sections of natural channels.
Two major types of hydraulic flumes are Parshall or Trapezoidal
ones.
Flumes need to be calibrated after construction before use.
See Chapter 6 for further information.
e) For streams, use gauging.
A current meter is used to
measure velocity at 0.2 and 0.8 Depth or at only 0.6 depth.
Measure areas of all sections using trapezoidal areas.
Q =
ai vi

Methods of Measuring Irrigation

Water Contd.

Using Floats: A floating object is put in water and

observe the time it takes the float e.g. a cork to go
from one marked area to another.

Assuming the float travels D meters in t secs

Velocity of water at surface = ( D/t ) m/s
Average velocity of flow = 0.8 (D/t)
Flow rate, Q = Cross sectional area of flow x velocity.

Object
D