Consolidation of Soil

Compressibility

The volume of soil mass is decreased under stress.

this decrease is known as Compression, and the
capacity of soil to decrease in volume under stress
is known as compressibility

Mechanical modeling of the

consolidation process
10kg

10kg

Stop
cock

piston

10kg
Water
out

10kg

Water
out

10kg
Water
out

Water
Spring
(a)

Spring load (kg):

Water load (kg):
Consolidation %:

(b)

(c)

0
10
0

(d)

2.5
7.5
25

5
5
50

(e)

7.5
2.5
75

(f)

10
0
100
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consolidation theory

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Consolidation
When soil is loaded undrained, the pore pressures
increase. Then, under site conditions, the excess pore
pressures dissipate and water leaves the soil, resulting
in consolidation settlement. This process takes time,
and the rate of settlement decreases over time.
eo
1

Time =
0+

Time =
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What is Consolidation?
When a saturated clay is loaded externally,
GL

saturated
clay
the water is squeezed out of the clay over a
long time (due to low permeability of the clay).
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What is Consolidation?

settlemen
t

This leads to settlements occurring over a long

time,

time

which could be several years.

In granular soils

settlemen
t

Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the

settlement is instantaneous.

time

During consolidation
Due to a surcharge q applied at
the GL,
the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.
q kPa

GL

..and, they
vary with time.

u
-

saturated
clay

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During consolidation
remains the same (=q) during consolidation.
u decreases (due to
while
drainage)
increases,
transferring the load from water
to the soil.

q kPa

GL

saturated clay

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One Dimensional
Consolidation
drainage and deformations are
(none
vertical
laterally)
a simplification for solving consolidation
q kPa
problems
GL

water squeezed out

saturated
clay

reasonable
simplification if
the surcharge is
of large lateral
extent

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H -e Relation
H
Ho

average vertical
strain =
q kPa
GL

saturated
clay
e=
eo
Time = 0+

q kPa
GL

Ho

saturated
clay
e = eo - e
Time =

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H -e Relation
Consider an element where Vs = 1
initially.

eo

Time =
0+

Time =

e
average vertical strain
1 eo
=

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H -e Relation
Equating the two expressions for average
vertical strain,
consolidati
on
settlement
initial thickness
of clay layer

H
e

Ho
1 eo

change in void
ratio

initial void
ratio

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Definition

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NORMALY CONSOLIDATION

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OVER CONSOLIDATION

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PRE-CONSOLIDATION
PRESSURE

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FIELD CONSOLIDATION
CURVE

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Coefficient of compressibility
denoted by av
is the ratio of change in void ratio to the
corresponding changin stress

Change
void
change in volume

original volume
Change
stress

mv

e
V

no
units

e0
e1

0 1

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Coefficient of volume
compressibility

denoted by mv
is the volumetric strain per unit increase in
stress

change in volume
original volume

V
mv

av
=

1+e0

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void ratio - e

Compression index Cc
e = e0 - Cc log10 [ / 0]
1.0

straight line
phase

0.6
100

1000

pressure kNm-2

Cc =

-e
Log

e0-e1
log10 [ / 0]
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Casagrande
tangent to max curvature

1.0

line from tangent

bisector

T
B
0.6

p0

100

straight line phase

lab. virgin curve

pc

1000

pressure kNm-2
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Coefficient of volume
compressibility
Soil Type

mv (cm2/kg)

Very highly
compressible
highly compressible
Med. compressible
Low compressible
Very low
compressible

>0.1
0.1 0.02
0.02 0.005
0.005 0.002
<0.002
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Consolidation Test

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Consolidation Test
settlement
dial gauge

Increment of load
Topcap

water

confining
ring

sample

porous stone
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Consolidation Test
cv = coefficient of consolidation
Mv = coefficient of volume change
K = coefficient of permeability

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AKAR WAKTU

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Consolidation Test
simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.
GL

porous
stone
undisturbed soil
specimen

metal ring

Dia = 50-75 mm

(oedometer)

Height = 20-30
mm

fiel
d

lab
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Consolidation Test
loading in
allowingincrements
full consolidation before next
increment
q1

q2

H1

Ho eo

eo- e1

H1
e1
(1 eo )
Ho

e2

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Consolidation Test
unloadin
g

43

e log v plot

void ratio

- from the above data

loading
v increases &
unloading

e decreases

v decreases &
e increases
(swelling)
log v

44

void ratio

Compression and recompression

indices
C
1

Cc ~ compression
index
Cc

Cr ~ recompression
index(or swelling
index)
Cr

log v

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Preconsolidation pressure

void ratio

is the
maximum
vertical
effective
stress the soil
element has
ever been
subjected to

preconsolidation
pressure

log v

Virgin Consolidation Line

original
state

virgin consolidation line

void ratio

e o,
vo
vo

log v

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Overconsolidation ratio
(OCR)
original
state

virgin consolidation line

vo

Field

void ratio

p'
OCR
vo '
vo

log v

Overconsolidation ratio
(OCR)
VCL
OCR=1

~current state

void ratio

OCR=13

OCR=2

Normally
consolidate
d clay

OCR=13
Heavily
overconsolidated
clay

OCR=2
Slightly
overconsolidated
clay

log v

Settlement computations
Two different ways to estimate
the consolidation settlement:
q kPa

(a) using mv
settlement = mv H

=q

(b) using e-log v

plot
eo, vo,
Cc, Cr, p,
mv
-

next slide

e
settlement
H
1 eo

Settlement computations
~ computing e using e-log v
plot
If the clay is normally
consolidated,
the entire loading path is along the
VCL.
initia
l

eo
e

vo

vo+

vo ' '
e Cc log
vo '

Settlement computations
~ computing e using e-log v
plot
If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains
so by the end of consolidation,

eo

vo ' '
e Cr log
vo '

initia
l

note the use of Cr

VC
L
vo

vo+

Settlement computations
~ computing e using e-log v
plot
If an overconsolidated clay becomes
normally consolidated by the end of
consolidation,

eo

p'
vo ' '
e Cr log
Cc log
vo '
p'

initia
l

vo

VC
L

vo+

One-dimensional
consolidation theory
A simple one-dimensional consolidation model consists of
rectilinear element of soil subject to vertical changes in
loading and through which vertical (only) seepage flow is
taking place.
There are three variables:
1.
the excess pore pressure ()
2.
the depth of the element in the layer (z)
3.
the time elapsed since application of the loading (t)

The total stress on the element is assumed to remain

constant.
The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is assumed to
be constant.
The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is
assumed to be constant.
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Mathematical model and

equation

Consider the element of consolidating soil. In time dt:

the seepage flow is dq
(q = A k i = A k dh/dz)
the change in excess pressure is

55

Mathematical model and

equation

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Mathematical model and

equation

By defining the coefficient of

consolidation as

this can be written:

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Terzaghi's solution

General solution
Drainage path length
The basic equation is

(z,t) is excess pore pressure at depth z after time t.

The solution depends on the boundary conditions:
The general solution is obtained for an overall (average)
degree of consolidation using non-dimensional factors.

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Terzaghi's solution

General solution
The following non-dimensional factors are used in order to
obtain a solution:
Degree of consolidation at depth z

Time factor

Drainage path ratio

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Terzaghi's solution

The differential equation can

now be written as:

If the excess pore pressure is

uniform with depth, the solution
is:

Putting Ut = rt/r = average

degree of consolidation in the
layer at time t:

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Drainage path length

During consolidation water escapes from the soil to the surface or to

a permeable sub-surface layer above or below (where = 0). The rate
of consolidation depends on the longest path taken by a drop of
water. The length of this longest path is the drainage path length, d.
Typical cases are:
An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below (d = H/2)
A half-closed layer, a permeable layer either above or below (d = H)
Vertical sand drains, horizontal drainage (d = L/2)
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Determination of cv from test

results

The Root-Time method

The Log-Time method

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The Root-Time method

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The Root-Time method

where d = drainage path length

[d = H for one-way drainage, d = H/2 for two-way
drainage]

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The Root-Time method

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The Log-Time method

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