Musculoskeletal System Skeleton

Human Biology
Year 11
ATAR Unit 1 & 2

Functions of the skeleton

Provides a framework that gives shape to

the body and supports its parts.

Bones also provide points of attachment for
most of the muscles.
Articulation varying degrees of
movement depending on the bones.
Providing protection to organs.
E.g. brain enclosed within the
skull.

Functions of the skeleton

(Cont.)
Bones act as storage for mineral salts and fats

(e.g. calcium, phosphorus, sodium and

potassium).
The bodys circulatory system can
control the movement of
these elements/minerals to
areas of need.
Bones provide blood cell

production (i.e. bone marrow).

Structure of bones

Bones are living cells capable of growth

and repair.
A typical bone (i.e. long bone) consists of:
The diaphysis (the shaft; the main
section)
The epiphyses (enlarged ends of the
bone; normally covered with a layer of
cartilage)

Structure of bones (Cont.)

If we cut the bone lengthwise, the
diaphysis is seen to be a hallow cylinder
of compact bone surrounding a cavity.
This cavity is used as
a fat storage site
(yellow bone marrow).

Structure of bones (Cont.)

The epiphysis on the other hand (the end
regions) contains compact bone, plus:
Spongy or Cancellous bone (contains
many large spaces filled with marrow, in
some cases red bone marrow).
Periosteum is a dense,
white, fibrous covering.
Not present when
articulate cartilage
is covering the end.

Microscopic structure of bones

Bones are classified as connective
tissue.
Connective tissue: cells separated
from each other by large non-cellular
material (called a matrix).
Inorganic salts are deposited in the
matrix (increases strength)
If we zoom into a bone using a
microscope we find much smaller units

Each osteon contains a central canal

around which exist layers of bone (like a
matrix) called lamellae.
Between the lamellae are small spaces in the
matrix called the lacunae.
A bone cell (or osteocyte) occupies each
lacuna. Tiny canals (or canaliculi) run
between the lacunae.
These tiny canals act as connections between
other cells allowing for material to pass.

Cartilage
Cartilage connective tissue.
Contains fibres made of protein called
collagen.
These protein fibres are embedded in a
firm matrix of a protein-carbohydrate
complex called chondrin.
Function: structural support,
flexibility
Found in: trachea, bronchi,

Cartilage has a firm matrix in which

collagen fibres are embedded. Within
the matrix are spaces that contain
cartilage cells called chondroblasts.
Overtime these spaces fill up and
become matured cells called
chondrocytes.

Many mature
chondrocytes [A]
are seen here,
each located within
a lacuna or
"small hole".

Smaller, immature chondroblasts [B]

are seen at the peripheral edges of the
cartilage, where cartilage growth occurs.

Cartilage Types
Hyaline cartilage contains closely
packed fibres, very fine. Provides
strength along with flexibility.
Found where? Trachea, bronchi,
moveable joints
Elastic cartilage conspicuous (or
clearly visible) elastic fibres. Not as
closely packed. Provide flexible elastic
support.
Found where? Ear

Cartilage Types
Fibrocartilage coarse appearance
from the parallel bundles of thick
collagenous fibres that make up this
tissue.
Not as compacted.
Found where? In the intervertebral
discs of the spinal column provides
cushion between vertebrae.
Also found in the articulate cartilage of
the knee.

Cartilage has no blood vessels.

Therefore nutrition/waste removal is
done via diffusion through the matrix.
This is a slow process (hence slow rate
of metabolism).
This explains why cartilage injuries take
time to heal.
The perichondrium (connective tissue
membrane) covers the external surface
of cartilage contains blood vessels and

Bones of the Skeleton

206 bones make up a human adult.
Some of these are fused (e.g. skull),
whereas others form joints to allow for
movement.
Bones are divided into two (2) sections:
Axial skeleton central axis of the
body. Provides the main support for
posture, protects nervous system and
organs (e.g. skull, ribs, sternum).
Appendicular skeleton

Joints
The site at which two or more bones
come together.
Types include:
Fibrous or fixed no movement occurs
(e.g. skull). Held in place by fibrous
connective tissue. The joints often break
(fracture) rather than give way.
Cartilaginous or slightly moveable
Held in place by cartilage. Allows for

Types include:
Synovial or freely moveable joints Movement is only limited by ligaments,
muscles, tendons, etc.
Examples: shoulder, elbow, wrist,
fingers, knee, etc.
Synovial joints can be categorised
by type of movement.
Ball-and-socket joints Only 2 such
joints exist. This forms when the
spherical head of one bone fits into a

Synovial joints can be categorised

by type of movement.
Hinge joint movement in one plane
only (like a door). Examples include;
elbow and knee.
Pivot joint formed when rounded,
pointed or conical end of one bone
articulates with a ring, formed partly by
bone and partly by ligament.
Examples include; first vertebra,
where the head is balanced (called the
atlas).

Synovial joints can be categorised

by type of movement.
Gliding joint allows movement in any
direction (side-to-side, or back-andforth).
Examples include; carpal bones, tarsal
bones, the sternum and clavicle.
Saddle joint where the thumb joints
the palm of the hand (allows both sideto-side and back-and-forth).

Synovial joints can be categorised

by type of movement.
Condyloid or ellipsoid joint Allows
movement in two directions, such as up
and down and side to side.
They have one surface of bone slightly
convex that fits into a slightly concave
depression in another bone.
These occur between the radius and the
carpal bones, the metacarpal bones and
the phalanges of the fingers.

Structure of a
synovial joint

Articulate capsule
encloses the joint.
Contains 2 layers:
Fibrous capsule
fibrous connective
tissue attached to
the bone. Allows for
flexibility and
prevents dislocation.
Synovial
membrane also
the inner layer,
contains loose
connective tissue,
supplied with blood

Structure of a synovial joint

Synovial fluid secreted by synovial
membrane. Fills the cavity. Acts as a lubricant.
Provides nourishment for the cells of the
articulate cartilage.
Also contains phagocytes removes organisms
and debris (from wear and tear).
Excess fluid can occur during
injury/inflammation.
Articulate cartilage Provides smooth surface
for movement in the joint.
Articulate discs present in some joints (i.e.

Structure of a synovial joint

Bursae or little sacs of synovial fluid (present
in some joints). They prevent friction between a
bone and a ligament or tendon, or between a
bone and the skin.
Accessory ligaments
holds bones together
in many joints.

Movement of a joint
Flexion - or
bending, which
usually decreases
the angle between
the articulating
bones.
Extension or
straightening,
which usually
increases the angle
between the

Movement of a joint
Abduction- movement away from the
midline of the body (e.g. lifting arms
upwards, away from body).
Adduction movement towards the
midline of the body (e.g. returning arms
to the sides).
Rotation movement of a none around
its long axis (e.g. palm is turned upwards
by twisting the forearm from the

Aging - Osteoporosis
Prominent in women when they hit
menopause. Bone density decreases as
calcium and other minerals diminish.
Osteoporosis means the loss of bone
mass.
Bone density decreases, risk of fractures
increases.
Most commonly affected bones include;
vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, wrist and upper
arm.

Aging - Osteoarthritis
The gradual change in the joints that
occurs over time (associated with old
age). Includes irritation of joints, wear and
abrasion.
This disease involves cartilage
deteriorating. This means bones are
NOT protected. This causes bones to
wear away and bony spurs or growths to
develop.
These spurs decrease

Aging - Osteoarthritis
By the age of 70 almost all have
symptoms (some minor).
Before the age of 55 it is equal between
genders.
After 60 it is more common in women.
Symptoms include; stiffness and pain in
joints.
Those suffering notice rubbing, grating or
crackling sounds when they move certain
joints.

Homework Task
Ensure review questions on
page 162 are completed.

Questions 1 to 15 only.
DUE Date: _________________________