Research Design

November 13, 2015

Topic & Structure of the lesson

2

Topic Outline
Nature of, Overview and Classification of Design
Developing an appropriate research design
Experimental research design:
Basic Designs
Types & validity of experimental design
external & internal

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Learning Outcomes
3

On completion of this chapter you should

be able to understand:
Understand the major descriptors of research design
Understand the major types of research designs
Understand the relationships that exist between
variables in causal designs and the steps for
evaluating those relationships

November 13, 2015

RESEARCH DESIGNS:OVERVIEW
4

It is a statement of only the essential elements of a study, those

that provide the basic guidelines for details of the project.

A research design is like a description of a `model'

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RESEARCH DESIGN: DEFINITION

5

Research design constitute the blueprint for the collection,

measurement and analysis of data.

The essentials of research design:

An activity- and time based plan.
A plan always based on the research question.
A guide for selecting sources and types of information.
A framework for specifying the relationship among the studys
variables.
A procedural outline for every research activity.

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Why Research Design is needed?

6

Clarity
Relevance
Ease in Analysis and Interpretation
Economy

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Classification of Research Design

7

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Classification of Research Designs:

8

RDs may be broadly classified as exploratory or conclusive

Exploratory research (ER)

are the simplest, most flexible and most

loosely structured designs. As the name suggests, the basic objective
of the study is to explore and obtain clarity on the problem situation.

Sample selected is small & non-representative. The primary data are

qualitative. Findings are tentative.

Conclusive research is more formal and structured than ER. It is

based on large, representative samples, and the data are subjected to

quantitative analysis. The objective of these studies is to provide a
comprehensive and detailed explanation of the phenomena under
study.
Findings are conclusive. Used in managerial decisions. These may be
either descriptive or causal.
November 13, 2015

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLORATORY

AND CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
9

Exploratory

Conclusive

Objective:

Toprovideinsightsand
understanding.

Informationneededisdefined
onlyloosely
Researchprocessisflexibleand
unstructured
Sampleissmallandnonrepresentative
Analysisofprimarydatais
qualitative.Tentative

Totestspecifichypotheses
andexaminerelationships

Generallyfollowedbyfurther
exploratoryorconclusiveresearch

Findingsusedasinputinto
decisionmaking

Characteristic
s:

Findings/Resu
lts:
Outcome:

Informationneededisclearly
defined.
Researchprocessisformal
andstructured
Sampleislargeand
representative.
Dataanalysisisquantitative.
Conclusive

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Exploratory Research Design

10

Secondary

resource analysis: Secondary

sources of data give information in terms of details
of previously collected findings in facts and figures
which has been authenticated and published.

Case method: it is intricately designed and reveals

a comprehensive and complete presentation of facts,

as they occur, in a single entity. This could be an
individual, an organisation or an entire country.
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Exploratory Research Design

11

Expert

opinion survey: valuable insights

obtained from experts which might be based on their
experience in the field or based on academic work
done on the concept.

Focus group discussions: a carefully selected

representative sub set of the larger respondent

gather to discuss together, in a short time frame, the
subject/topic to be investigated.
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Descriptive Studies

Descriptions
Descriptions of
of
population
population characteristics
characteristics
Estimates
Estimates of
of frequency
frequency of
of
characteristics
characteristics
Discovery
Discovery of
of associations
associations
among
among variables
variables

Descriptive Research Design

13

Cross-sectional research designs: two criteria

1. carried out at a single moment in time,
therefore the applicability is temporal specific
2. Conducted on a sub-section of the respondent
population
Variations
Single/multiple cross- sectional designs
Cohort analysis
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Descriptive Research Design

14

Longitudinal studies: three criteria

1. The study involves selection of a representative

group as a panel.
2. There are repeated measurement of the
researched variable on this panel over fixed
intervals of time.
3. Once selected the panel composition needs to
stay constant over the study period.

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Causal Studies

Symmetrical
Symmetrical
Reciprocal
Reciprocal

Asymmetrical
Asymmetrical

Experimental Design
16
An experiment is generally used to infer a causality. In an experiment, a researcher actively manipulates
one or more causal variables and measures their effects on the dependent variable of interest.
Independent variables: Independent variables are also known as explanatory variables or treatments.

The levels of these variables are manipulated (changed) by researchers to measure their effect on the
dependent variable.
Test units: Test units are those entities on which treatments are applied.
Dependent variables: These variables measures the effect of treatments (independent variable) on the

test units.
Experiment: An experiment is executed when the researcher manipulates one or more independent

variables and measures their effect on the dependent variables while controlling the effect of the extraneous
variables.
Extraneous variables: These are the variables other than the independent variables which influence

the response of test units to treatments.

Examples: Store size, government policies, temperature, food intake, geographical location, etc.

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Validity
17

Validity: The degree of confidence researchers and managers can have in

the results of the study.

Two Goals
1. draw valid conclusions about the impact of independent variable on the
study group,
Secondly, should be able to generalize the findings to a larger population of
interest.
The first objective is related with what is known as internal validity. The

second is related with external validity.

Internal validity: Internal validity tries to examine whether the observed effect

on a dependent variable is actually caused by the treatments (independent

variables) in question.
Some major classes of variables that may affect
internal validity/generate
experimental error: i) History (ii) Maturation
(iii)
Testing Effects
(iv)
Instrumentation (v) Selection Bias (vi) Test Unit Mortality
November 13, 2015

Validity
External validity: External validity refers to the generalization of the results of an
experiment. The concern is whether the result of an experiment can be
generalized beyond the experimental
In most of the experiments the data are collected through sampling process and not
from population.
Factors Affecting External Validity:
The environment at the time of test may be different from the environment of the real
world where these results are to be generalized.
Population used for experimentation of the test may not be similar to the population
where the results of the experiments are to be applied.
Results obtained in a 56 week test may not hold in an application of 12 months.
Treatment at the time of the test may be different from the treatment of the real world.
It is desirable to have an experimental design that has both external and internal
validity.

Reliability
19

Reliability(Consistency of results): The degree to which measures

are free from errors and therefore yield consistent results.
Ex. Measuring fabric with a tape measure.
Ordinal measures are reliable if it consistently rank order items in the
same manner. Interval measures-if it results the same distance
between the two ranks

Dimensions that underlie the reliability:

a) Repeatability (test-retest method)
Ex. Satisfaction level of employees at two different intervals
b) Internal Consistency (Splitting half method & equivalentform methods) :
Ex. Two groups of respondents one questionnaire. One group of
respondents using alternative instruments as equivalent as possible.
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Methods to Control Extraneous Variables

20

Randomization
Matching
Use of experimental designs
Statistical control

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The Research Environment

Field conditions
Lab conditions

Simulations

Types of Experimental Designs

22

Types: Basic Designs & Statistical Designs

Basic Designs: Considers the impact of only
one independent variable at a time
1. After-Only Design;
2. Before-After Design
3. Before-After With Control Design
4. Simulated Before-After Design
5. After-Only with Control
6. Solmon Four-Group Design
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Types of Experimental Design

23

Statistical Design: Allows the evaluation of the effect of more than

one independent variable
1. Randomized Block Design
2. Latin Square design
3. Factorial Design

Various Symbols in Experimental designs:

MB = pre-measurement of the dependent variable i.e. before the
introduction/manipulation of the independent variable.
MA = post-measurement of the dependent variable i.e. during the
introduction/manipulation of the independent variable.
X = treatment; the actual introduction or manipulation of the independent variable
R = designation/notation that the group is selected randomly

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Basics Experimental Designs

24

After-Only design: involves manipulating the

independent variable and following this with a postmeasurement, or symbolically: X MA

Ex. Ford Motors company spent $500,000 on such exp. In Dallas & in

San Deiego. Sent engraved invitations to women to attend dealer

showroom parties and served wine & cheese. Latest Clothing Fashions
displayed by models & Ford automobiles were shown in no pressure
situation.
Subsequent purchase by those who attended the party was one measure to
measure the success of the experiment.
Advantages/Disadvantages: Typical most new-products test markets
example. Results difficult to interpret & subject to numerous errors.
Requires substantial market knowledge & subjective judgment.
Should be used with care.
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Basics Experimental Designs

25

Before After Design: It involves a pre-measurement in

addition:
MB
X
MA
The result of interest: (MA MB) i.e. considerable
advantage over After-Only.
Ex. To estimate the effect of price increase on market
share.

Researcher must be alert to the possibility that extraneous variable

caused the result than the independent variable. Hence unless
the researcher is confident that extraneous variables are not
operating or that he/she can control their effect, before after
design should be avoided.
Above two tests Quasi-experimental Design
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Before-After with Control Design

26

Involves the addition of a control Group to the Before-After

Design:

R
R

MB1
MB2

MA1
MA2

Can control all potential errors except mortality & interaction.

Measure of interest: (MB1 MA1) (MB2 MA2)

Ex. A Firm wishes to test the impact of a P-O-P display. Ten retail stores

selected for inclusion in the treatment group, another ten for the
control group. Sales measured in each group of stores, before and after
the new P-O-P display. The change in sales of the two group is
compared. Controls any initial inequalities between the sales group.
In cases where the interaction is unlikely and control for history and
selection errors is important, the before-after with control group design
is the best design in terms of cost and error control.
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Simulated Before After Design

27

Controls pre-measurement & interaction errors in

experiments dealing with attitude and knowledge of human

subjects. Uses separate groups for the pre & post
measurement:
R
MB
R
X
MA
Measure of interest= (MA MB)
Different individuals receives the pre- & post measurements,
there can be no pre-measurement or interaction effect.
Ex. Advertising Research. Large sample-Questionnaireattitude towards the product (pre-measurement)
Advertisement (Change in the independent variable)
second sample of respondents, same questionnaire (postmeasurement). Thus difference in the two scores can
contribute to the effect of advertising campaign.November 13, 2015

After-Only with Control design

28

If it is likely that the groups are initial equal on the

variable of interest then there is no reason to go to

the expense of pre-measurement. Instead an afteronly with control design can be used.
R
X1
MA1
R
MA2
Measure of interest: (MA2 MA1)

November 13, 2015

Solomon Four-Group Design

29
Consists of Four Groups, two treatment + two control and six measurements: two pre-

measurements + Four post-measurements:

Experiment Group1:
R
Control Group1:
R
MB2
Experiment Group2:
R
Control Group2:
R

MB1

X
MA2
X
MA4

MA1
MA3

It controls all sources of experimental errors except measurement timing & reactive error
which is not subject to control by designs. No single method of analysis makes use of all
six measurement methods simultaneously
All four groups are preselected in such a way that they are equivalent i.e. they are
selected on a random basis. This means before measurement should be the same in all
four groups except for random variations.
The fourgroup six-study design may be taken as a model for marketing experiments, has
little practical value.
The expense of selecting four groups randomly and making six studies among these
groups make this design impractical for most marketing studies.

November 13, 2015

Participants Perceptions

No deviation perceived
Deviations perceived
as unrelated
Deviations perceived as
researcher-induced

Statistical Designs
31

Statistical designs allow for statistical control and

analysis of external variables.
Completely randomized design
Randomized block design
Latin square design
Factorial design

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Statistical designs
32

Completely randomized Design:

Treatments are applied to the experimental units

entirely by a chance process.
Statistical tool used ANOVA one way

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Statistical Designs
33

Randomized Block Design(Two Way ANOVA):

In RBD the experimental units are blocked, that is, grouped or
stratified, on the basis of extraneous or blocking variable.
Ex. Assume that a total sample of 800 males and 400 females is
available. Individuals are assigned to blocks based on their gender,
producing one block of 400 females and one block of 800 males. The
individuals within each block are randomly assigned to treatment
groups. The use of ANOVA then allows the researcher to determine the
impact of the commercial on the overall group as well as its impact on
the males and females subgroups.

November 13, 2015

Factorial Design
34

Used to measure the effect of two or more

independent variables at same time and to measure
the interaction effect of the variables. Interaction
occurs when the simultaneous effect of two or more
variables is different from the sum of their effects
taken one at a time.
Ex. Ones favorite color might be gray & favorite
desert might be ice-cream. However it does not
follow that he/she would prefer gray ice-cream.

November 13, 2015

Factorial Design
Ex. Consider the problem of determining the proper concentration of
sugar & flavor in a soft drink.
One approach may be to make a batch of optimum mixture and have a
sample consumer taste it and indicate and order of preference.
Another approach may be: makeup several batches with different level
of sugar content and flavor constant. Consumer may then taste and
indicate a preference. Later on sugar could be held constant and flavor
varied.
Later approach may indicate that heavy sugar and heavy sugar were
preferred. May not be valid always. The fact may be when the flavor is
strong, the sugar may be less desirable.
So its important to test various levels of sugar content combined with
various levels of flavor

Factorial Design
Suppose four degrees/levels each were selected as possible

characteristics of the final product. Sixteen combinations can be

made as follows & be given to sample of consumers.. With say
some preference from 1-10 Hypothetically:
Flavor
Intensity

Sugar Content
1

A 4.9

B- 6.0

C 5.0

D 3.6

E 6.1

F 7.3

G 5.1

H 3.8

I 8.1

J - 9.2

K 8.3

L 4.6

M 6.2

N 6.4

O 6.2

P 3.2

Second degree of sugar content & third degree of flavor are

preferred over others. The combination of these two is the

product formula as per FD.

Latin Square design

37

With the Latin Square design one can control variation in two

directions.
The design requires that extraneous or blocking variables be divided in
to an equal no. of blocks or levels, such as drugstores, supermarkets and
discount stores. The independent variables be divided in to the same no.
of levels, such as high price, medium price & low price.
-Treatments are arranged in rows and columns
-Each row contains every treatment.
-Each column contains every treatment.
-The most common sizes of LS are 5x5 to 8x8
Advantages of the LS Design
1. You can control variation in two directions.
2. Hopefully you increase efficiency as compared to the RBD.
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Latin Square Design

38

Disadvantages of the LS Design:

1. The number of treatments must equal the
number of replicates.
2. The experimental error is likely to increase with
the size of the square.

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Business Research Design

39

SUMMARY

November 13, 2015

References:
40

1.
2.
3.
4.

Business Research Methods Cooper, Schindler; Tata Mc Graw

Hills
Marketing Research G C Beri; Tata Mc Graw Hills.
Business Research Methods William G Zikmund; Thomson.
Marketing Research Tull, Hawkin; PHI

November 13, 2015

Thank you!