Fisiologi Integrative Functions Bshb14

Chapter
16
Neural Integration:
Sensory Pathways
and the Somatic
Nervous System
and Higher-Order
PowerPoint
Lecture Slides
Functions
prepared by Jason LaPres

Lone Star College - North Harris
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.,

publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Outline
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INTRODUCTION
SOMATIC SENSORY AND MOTOR PATHWAYS
MONITORING BRAIN ACTIVITY : THE EEG
HIGHER ORDER FUNCTIONS
BRAIN CHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOUR
AGING AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Objective
1. Identify the principal sensory and motor pathways.
2. Compare the components, processes, and functions of the various motor
pathways.
3. Explain how we can distinguish among sensations that originate in different
areas of the body.
4. Describe the levels of information processing involved in motor control.
5. Discuss how the brain integrates sensory information and coordinates
responses.
6. Explain how memories are created, stored, and recalled.
7. Distinguish between the levels of consciousness and unconsciousness, and
identify the characteristics of brain activity associated with the different
levels of sleep.
8. Describe drug-related alterations in brain function.
9. Summarize the effects of aging on the nervous system.
Introduction
Figure 16-1 An Overview of Neural Integration.

Introduction
Afferent Division of the Nervous System
Receptors
Sensory neurons
Sensory pathways
Efferent Division of the Nervous System

Nuclei
Motor tracts
Motor neurons
Sensory Pathways
First-Order Neuron
Sensory neuron delivers sensations to the CNS
Cell body of a first-order general sensory neuron is located in dorsal
root ganglion or cranial nerve ganglion
Second-Order Neuron
Axon of the sensory neuron synapses on an interneuron in the CNS
May be located in the spinal cord or brain stem
Third-Order Neuron
If the sensation is to reach our awareness, the second-order neuron
synapses on a third-order neuron in the thalamus
Sensory Pathways
Somatic Sensory Pathways
Carry sensory information from the skin and
musculature of the body wall, head, neck, and limbs
Three major somatic sensory pathways
The posterior column pathway
The spinothalamic pathway
The spinocerebellar pathway
Sensory Pathways
Figure 154 Sensory Pathways and Ascending Tracts in the Spinal

Cord.
Sensory Pathways
Figure 155b The Spinothalamic Tracts of the Spinothalamic Pathway.

Somatic Motor Pathways

SNS, or the somatic motor system, controls
contractions of skeletal muscles (discussed
next)
ANS, or the visceral motor system, controls
visceral effectors, such as smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands (Ch. 16)

Always involve at least two motor neurons
Upper motor neuron
Cell body lies in a CNS processing center
Synapses on the lower motor neuron
Innervates a single motor unit in a skeletal muscle:
activity in upper motor neuron may facilitate or inhibit
lower motor neuron

Always involve at least 2 motor neurons
Lower motor neuron
Cell body lies in a nucleus of the brain stem or
spinal cord
Triggers a contraction in innervated muscle:
only axon of lower motor neuron extends outside CNS
destruction of or damage to lower motor neuron
eliminates voluntary and reflex control over innervated
motor unit

Conscious and Subconscious Motor
Commands
Control skeletal muscles by traveling over
three integrated motor pathways
Corticospinal pathway
Medial pathway
Lateral pathway
Figure 158 Descending (Motor) Tracts in the Spinal Cord.


The Corticospinal Pathway
Motor homunculus
Primary motor cortex corresponds point by point with specific
regions of the body
Cortical areas have been mapped out in diagrammatic form
Homunculus provides indication of degree of fine motor
control available:
hands, face, and tongue, which are capable of varied and
complex movements, appear very large, while trunk is relatively
small
these proportions are similar to the sensory homunculus
Figure 159 The Corticospinal Pathway.


The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum
Responsible for coordination and feedback
control over muscle contractions, whether
contractions are consciously or
subconsciously directed

The Basal Nuclei
Provide background patterns of movement involved in
voluntary motor activities
Some axons extend to the premotor cortex, the motor
association area that directs activities of the primary motor
cortex:
alters the pattern of instructions carried by the corticospinal
tracts
Other axons alter the excitatory or inhibitory output of the

reticulospinal tracts

The Cerebellum
Monitors
Proprioceptive (position) sensations
Visual information from the eyes
Vestibular (balance) sensations from inner ear as
movements are under way
Higher-Order Functions
Require the cerebral cortex
Involve conscious and unconscious
information processing
Not part of programmed wiring of brain
Can adjust over time
Memory
Fact memories
Are specific bits of information
Skill memories
Learned motor behaviors
Incorporated at unconscious level with repetition
Programmed behaviors stored in appropriate area of brain
stem
Complex are stored and involve motor patterns in the basal
nuclei, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum
Memory
Shortterm memories
Information that can be recalled immediately
Contain small bits of information
Primary memories
Long-term memories
Memory consolidation: conversion from short-term to longterm memory:
secondary memories fade and require effort to recall
tertiary memories are with you for life
Figure 1613 Memory Storage.

Brain Regions Involved in Memory Consolidation
and Access
Amygdaloid body and hippocampus
Nucleus basalis
Cerebral cortex
Amygdaloid body and hippocampus
Are essential to memory consolidation
Damage may cause
Inability to convert short-term memories to new
long-term memories
Existing long-term memories remain intact and
accessible
Nucleus Basalis
Cerebral nucleus near diencephalon
Plays uncertain role in memory storage and retrieval
Tracts connect with hippocampus, amygdaloid body,
and cerebral cortex
Damage changes emotional states, memory, and
intellectual functions
Cerebral cortex
Stores long-term memories
Conscious motor and sensory memories referred to
association areas
Occipital and temporal lobes
Special portions crucial to memories of faces, voices, and
words
A specific neuron may be activated by combination of
sensory stimuli associated with particular individual; called
grandmother cells
Cerebral cortex
Visual association area
Auditory association area
Speech center
Frontal lobes
Related information stored in other locations
If storage area is damaged, memory will be incomplete
Cellular Mechanisms of Memory Formation and
Storage
Involves anatomical and physiological
changes in neurons and synapses
Increased neurotransmitter release
Facilitation at synapses
Formation of additional synaptic connections
Increased Neurotransmitter Release
Frequently active synapse increases the
amount of neurotransmitter it stores
Releases more on each stimulation
The more neurotransmitter released, the
greater effect on postsynaptic neuron
Facilitation at Synapses
Neural circuit repeatedly activated
Synaptic terminals begin continuously releasing
neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on postsynaptic
membrane
Produces graded depolarization
Brings membrane closer to threshold
Facilitation results affect all neurons in circuit
Formation of Additional Synaptic Connections
Neurons repeatedly communicating
Axon tip branches and forms additional synapses on
postsynaptic neuron
Presynaptic neuron has greater effect on
transmembrane potential of postsynaptic neuron
Storage
Basis of memory storage
Processes create anatomical changes
Facilitate communication along specific neural circuit
Memory Engram
Single circuit corresponds to single memory
Forms as result of experience and repetition
Storage
Efficient conversion of short-term memory
Takes at least 1 hour
Repetition crucial
Factors of conversion
Nature, intensity, and frequency of original stimulus
Strong, repeated, and exceedingly pleasant or unpleasant
events likely converted to long-term memories
Storage
Drugs stimulate CNS
Caffeine and nicotine are examples:
enhance memory consolidation through facilitation
NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) Receptors:
linked to consolidation
chemically gated calcium channels
activated by neurotransmitter glycine
gates open, calcium enters cell
blocking NMDA receptors in hippocampus prevents longterm memory formation
States of Consciousness
Many gradations of states
Degree of wakefulness indicates level of
ongoing CNS activity
When abnormal or depressed, state of
wakefulness is affected
Deep sleep
Also called slow-wave sleep
Entire body relaxes
Cerebral cortex activity minimal
Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and
energy utilization decline up to 30%
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Active dreaming occurs
Changes in blood pressure and respiratory rate
Less receptive to outside stimuli than in deep sleep
Muscle tone decreases markedly
Intense inhibition of somatic motor neurons
Eyes move rapidly as dream events unfold
Nighttime sleep pattern
Alternates between levels
Begins in deep sleep
REM periods average 5 minutes in length;
increase to 20 minutes over 8 hours
Sleep
Has important impact on CNS
Produces only minor changes in physiological
activities of organs and systems
Protein synthesis in neurons increases during sleep
Extended periods without sleep lead to disturbances
in mental function
25% of U.S. population experiences sleep disorders
Figure 1614 Levels of Sleep.

EEG
Arousal and the reticular activating system (RAS)
Awakening from sleep
Function of reticular formation:
extensive interconnections with sensory, motor, integrative nuclei,
and pathways along brain stem
Determined by complex interactions between reticular formation

and cerebral cortex
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Important brain stem component
Diffuse network in reticular formation
Extends from medulla oblongata to mesencephalon
Output of RAS projects to thalamic nuclei that
influence large areas of cerebral cortex
When RAS inactive, so is cerebral cortex
Stimulation of RAS produces widespread activation of
cerebral cortex
Arousal and the Reticular Activating
System
Ending sleep
Any stimulus activates reticular formation and RAS
Arousal occurs rapidly
Effects of single stimulation of RAS last less than a
minute
Arousal and the Reticular Activating System
Maintaining consciousness
Activity in cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and sensory and
motor pathways continue to stimulate RAS:
after many hours, reticular formation becomes less responsive
to stimulation
individual becomes less alert and more lethargic
neural fatigue reduces RAS activity
Arousal and the Reticular Activating System
Regulation of awakeasleep cycles
Involves interplay between brain stem nuclei that use
different neurotransmitters
Group of nuclei stimulates RAS with NE and maintains
awake, alert state
Other group promotes deep sleep by depressing RAS activity
with serotonin
Dueling nuclei located in brain stem
Figure 1615 The Reticular Activating System.

Brain Chemistry
Huntington Disease
Destruction of ACh-secreting and GABA-secreting
neurons in basal nuclei
Symptoms appear as basal nuclei and frontal lobes
slowly degenerate
Difficulty controlling movements
Intellectual abilities gradually decline
Brain Chemistry
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Powerful hallucinogenic drug
Activates serotonin receptors in brain stem,
hypothalamus, and limbic system
Brain Chemistry
Serotonin
Compounds that enhance effects also
produce hallucinations (LSD)
Compounds that inhibit or block action cause
severe depression and anxiety
Variations in levels affect sensory
interpretation and emotional states
Brain Chemistry
Serotonin
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
Slows removal of serotonin at synapses
Increases serotonin concentrations at postsynaptic
membrane
Classified as selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs)
Other SSRIs:
Celexa, Luvox, Paxil, and Zoloft
Brain Chemistry
Parkinson Disease
Inadequate dopamine production causes motor
problems
Dopamine
Secretion stimulated by amphetamines, or speed
Large doses can produce symptoms resembling
schizophrenia
Important in nuclei that control intentional movements
Important in other centers of diencephalon and cerebrum
Aging and the Nervous System

Anatomical and physiological changes
begin after maturity (age 30)
Accumulate over time
85% of people over age 65 have changes
in mental performance and CNS function

Reduction in Brain Size and Weight
Decrease in volume of cerebral cortex
Narrower gyri and wider sulci
Larger subarachnoid space

Reduction in Number of Neurons
Brain shrinkage linked to loss of cortical
neurons
No neuronal loss in brain stem nuclei

Decrease in Blood Flow to Brain
Arteriosclerosis
Fatty deposits in walls of blood vessels
Reduces blood flow through arteries
Increases chances of rupture
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke

May damage surrounding neural tissue

Changes in Synaptic Organization of Brain
Number of dendritic branches, spines, and
interconnections decreases
Synaptic connections lost
Rate of neurotransmitter production declines

Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in CNS
Neurons
Neurons in brain accumulate abnormal intracellular
deposits
Lipofuscin
Granular pigment with no known function
Neurofibrillary tangles
Masses of neurofibrils form dense mats inside cell body and
axon

Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in
CNS Neurons
Plaques
Extracellular accumulations of fibrillar proteins
Surrounded by abnormal dendrites and axons

Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in
CNS Neurons
Plaques and tangles
Contain deposits of several peptides
Primarily two forms of amyloid (A) protein
Appear in brain regions specifically associated with
memory processing

Anatomical Changes
Linked to functional changes
Neural processing becomes less efficient with
age
Memory consolidation more difficult
Secondary memories harder to access

Sensory Systems
Hearing, balance, vision, smell, and taste become
less acute
Reaction times slowed
Reflexes weaken or disappear
Motor Control
Precision decreases
Takes longer to perform

Senility
Also called senile dementia
Degenerative changes
Memory loss
Anterograde amnesia (lose ability to store new memories)
Emotional disturbances
Alzheimer disease is most common
Nervous System Integration
Figure 1616 Functional Relationships between the Nervous System and Other
Systems.
Systems.
Systems.

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Chapter

prepared by Jason LaPres

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.,

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 16-1 An Overview of Neural Integration.

Efferent Division of the Nervous System

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 154 Sensory Pathways and Ascending Tracts in the Spinal

Figure 155b The Spinothalamic Tracts of the Spinothalamic Pathway.

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Somatic Motor Pathways

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Somatic Motor Pathways

Figure 158 Descending (Motor) Tracts in the Spinal Cord.

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Somatic Motor Pathways

Figure 159 The Corticospinal Pathway.

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Somatic Motor Pathways

Other axons alter the excitatory or inhibitory output of the

Somatic Motor Pathways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 1613 Memory Storage.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) Receptors:

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 1614 Levels of Sleep.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Determined by complex interactions between reticular formation

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 1615 The Reticular Activating System.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and the Nervous System

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and the Nervous System

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and the Nervous System

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and the Nervous System

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke