Blood Vessels

1)
2)
3)
4)

heart
liver
gut
kidney

A: Arteries
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

B: Veins

13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)

carotid artery
subclavian artery
pulmonary artery
hepatic artery
aorta
mesenteric artery
renal artery
iliac artery

jugular vein
subclavian vein
hepatic vein
vena cava
hepatic portal vein
renal vein
iliac vein

The Double Circulatory System

oxygenated blood

deoxygenated blood

Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

Microscopic Structure

Blood in the Circulatory System

pressure

speed

total cross-sectional
area of the vessels

Capillary Exchange
capillary

blood

D
tissue fluid

tissue cells
lymph capillary

lymph

Tissue Fluid
region

p
(kPa)

s
(kPa)

4.5

-3.3

net
pressure
(kPa)
+1.2

A
C

blood
flow

B
D

tissue fluid

1.8

-3.3

-1.5
At the arterial end formation of tissue fluid

1.0

-1.3

-0.3

At the venous end - return of tissue fluid

Improved exchange with tissues

1.0

-1.3

-0.3

Excess fluid returns as lymph - in the

lymphatic system

The Lymphatic System

a drainage system
part of the immune system
assists absorption of lipids in
the intestine

Blood
Plasma (55%)

erythrocytes

water
proteins (e.g. albumin, globulin,
fibrinogen)
salts (e.g. NaCl, K+, Ca++, Mg++,
PO4-)
transported substances (e.g.
glucose, urea)

thrombocytes

Cells (45%)

neutrophil
lymphocyte

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

leucocytes (white blood cells)
neutrophils: granular
phagocytes.
lymphocytes: produce
antibodies.
monocytes: agranular
phagocytes.
eosinophils and basophils:
granular cells concerned with
inflammation reactions.
thrombocytes (platelets): cell
fragments

Defence Against Disease

1: preventing entry

skin
tears, saliva and
mucus
lysozyme
stomach acid.
clotting mechanism
to repair skin
damage - - - - -

thromboplastin from
damaged tissues

prothrombin
(plasma protein)

fibrinogen
(soluble plasma
protein)

Ca++ and
plasma enzymes

thrombin

fibrin
(insoluble)

fibres trap blood cells

and platelets to form a
clot

Defence Against Disease

2: phagocytosis

The phagocytic cell recognises a foreign particle...

...and engulfs it...

...forming a phagosome.

The particle is digested inside the

phagosome...
...and the cell may become an
antigen-presenting cell.

Defence Against Disease

3: specific immune response

specific antibodies

antigen-binding
site

antigen-binding
site
variable
region

light chain

hinge

disulphide
bridges

heavy
chain

antigenantibody
complexes

constant
region

humoral
immune
response

cellular
immune
response

macrophage
(antigen-presenting cell)

antigen

B-lymphocyte

T-lymphocyte
clonal selection

clonal selection

clonal expansion
clonal expansion

antigen presentation

B memory cells

T memory cells
cytokines

T-helper cells
plasma
cells

antibodies

cytotoxic
T cells

Primary & Secondary Immune Responses

Types of Immunity
Natural immunity: normal
biological processes - NOT
human intervention.

Artificial immunity: due to

human (medical)
intervention.

Active immunity: the body

is exposed to antigen. The
immune system produces
memory cells giving longterm protection.

E.g., you do not suffer

from chicken-pox twice

E.g., vaccination against

measles

Passive immunity: the

body receives ready-made
antibodies. Protection is
only short-term.

E.g., antibodies cross the

placenta from mother to
fetus

E.g., injection of tetanus

antitoxin

Rejection

the ABO Blood Group System

recipient
donor

AB

AB

+ = agglutination occurs
- = agglutination does not occur

Haemolytic Disease of the

Newborn

First pregnancy:

At birth:

Second pregnancy:

No blood-blood contact, so antiD antibodies are not formed.

There may be blood-blood

contact, and the mother may
form anti-D antibodies.

The mother already has anti-D

antibodies. These can cross the
placenta, and attack the red
blood cells of the fetus.

Antibiotic Action
inhibition of
protein synthesis

inhibition of cell wall synthesis

eg tetracycline

eg penicillin *
DNA

change in membrane
permeability
eg polymyxin *

inhibition of transcription

RNA

interference with
metabolic reactions
eg sulpha drugs

.
. .
.
.
.
.
ribosomes

eg rifampicin *

*bacteriostatic antibiotics stop/slow bacterial growth

bacteriocidal antibiotics kill bacteria

Antibiotic Resistance
cell wall surrounded by
impermeable outer envelope
(eg in gram negative bacteria)

cell membrane
impermeable
to antibiotic

enzyme destroys
the antibiotic
(eg penicillinase)

extra quantities of
blocked chemicals
are synthesised
phosphorylation
of antibiotic
prevents it binding
to ribosomes/enzymes

.. ..
..
..

blocked chemicals
are absorbed from
the environment

The Digestive System

Balanced Diet
Substance

Functions

Carbohydrates
(Sugars/starch)

Energy release (substrates for respiration). Excess

energy stored (as glycogen) or converted to fat.

Lipids
fats (solids) and oils
(liquids).

Energy/energy storage. Also thermal/electrical

insulation, mechanical protection, membrane synthesis
(essential fatty acids)

Proteins

Growth/repair (structural proteins), enzymes, etc, etc

Mineral ions

Various inorganic ions, needed in small amounts for

miscellaneous functions.

Vitamins

Various organic molecules, needed in small amounts for

miscellaneous functions.

Water

A constituent of all body fluids, including cytoplasm;

water losses (in sweat etc) must be replaced.

Dietary fibre

Indigestible material - maintains peristalsis.

mostly cellulose.

Important mineral ions needed in the diet

Mineral

Food sources

Functions

Deficiency

Calcium (Ca++)

Dairy foods,
bread

Bones & teeth; muscle contraction, blood

clotting, synapses.

Rickets,
osteomalacia

Iron (Fe++)

Meat; green
vegetables.

In haemoglobin; also in electron carriers.

Simple anaemia

Phosphate
(PO43-)

In nearly all
foods

In bones & teeth; also for ATP, nucleic

acids, cell membranes.

Magnesium
(Mg++)

Green
vegetables,
etc.

In bones & teeth; also as an enzyme

activator in respiration.

Weakening of
bones.

Sodium
chloride
(NaCl)

Table salt, meat.

In blood etc; essential for nerve & muscle

action; lost in sweat.

Muscle cramp

Potassium
(K+)

In nearly all
foods

Enzyme co-factor; essential for nerve &

muscle action.

Iodine (I-)

Seafood

In thyroxine.

Goitre

Important vitamins needed in the diet

Vitamin

Food sources

Functions

Effect of deficiency

A: Retinol, or carotene
(pro-vitamin A)

Fish oils, liver, dairy

produce; and green
vegetables
Vegetables, wholemeal
cereals, meat.

Maintenance of epithelia, esp.

mucous membranes; rhodopsin
synthesis (in the retina).
A co-enzyme for decarboxylation
in respiration

Night blindness; drying of

epithelia; xerophthalmia.

B2 :Riboflavin

Eggs, dairy produce.

Synthesis of FAD.

Causes sores in/around

the mouth.

B3: Nicotinic acid

Wholemeal cereals,
potatoes, meat.

Synthesis of NAD.

Pellagra (skin rashes,

diarrhoea).

B9: Folic acid

Green vegetables, fish,

liver.

Anaemia (esp. during

pregnancy)

B12: Cobalamin

Meat, liver, dairy

produce, eggs.

C: Ascorbic acid

Most fruits and

vegetables

D: Calciferol

Egg yolk, dairy produce.

[Also can be
synthesised in the skin
in sunlight.]

Formation of nucleic acids; cell

division (esp. red blood cells
formation).
Formation of nucleic acids; cell
division (esp. red blood cells
formation).
Maintenance of connective
tissue. Synthesis of collagen
fibres.
Absorption of calcium and
phosphate from the gut, and
deposition of these minerals in
bones and teeth

B1: Thiamine

(niacin)

Beriberi (nerve & muscle

affected).

Pernicious anaemia.

Scurvy (bleeding &

weakening of gums &
skin).
Rickets in children (bones
fail to calcify);
osteomalacia (softening of
the bones) in adults.

Digestion in the Alimentary Canal

Physical digestion (chewing, etc):
increases surface area

Chemical digestion:

hydrolysis of large molecules to soluble products

Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

Lipids

Fatty acids & glycerol

Proteins

Amino-acids

(INSOLUBLE)

(SOLUBLE)

Digestive Secretions
Gland

Secretion

Enzymes etc

Effect

salivary
glands

saliva

amylase

starch maltose (partly)

gastric
glands

gastric juice

pepsinogen (endopeptidase)

protein polypeptides [must be

converted to pepsin first]
in infants: coagulates milk
(caseinogen casein) [must
be converted to rennin first]
pepsinogen pepsin
prorennin rennin

prorennin

HCl
pancreas

pancreatic
juice

amylase
lipase

starch maltose (completed)

fats fatty acids & glycerol

trypsinogen (endopeptidase)

exopeptidases

larger polypeptides smaller

polypeptides [must be converted
to trypsin first]
polypeptides amino-acids

liver

bile

bile salts

emulsify fats

intestinal
glands

intestinal juice

exopeptidases
enterokinase

polypeptides amino-acids
trypsinogen trypsin

maltase
sucrase
lactase

maltose glucose
sucrose glucose + fructose
lactose glucose + galactose

Control of Digestive Secretions

Buccal cavity

nervous control - simple reflex

conditioned reflexes

prevents auto-digestion

Gastric secretion

prevents wasteful
secretion

cephalic phase
presence of food in the buccal cavity
simple neural reflex
gastric phase 1
presence of food in the stomach
local neural reflex
gastric phase 2
presence of food in the stomach
hormonal secretion from stomach wall gastrin
operates via the blood stream
intestinal phase
entry of food into the duodenum
hormonal secretion from duodenal wall enterogastrone
inhibitory

Secretion into the small intestine

triggered by presence of food in the duodenum

local neural reflex stimulates secretion of intestinal juice
secretion of hormones into the blood pancreozymin causes secretion of pancreatic enzymes
secretin causes secretion of alkali from the pancreas &
liver
cholecystokinin (CCK) causes contraction of the gall bladder

Absorption of Nutrients
Most nutrients are absorbed in the lower part of the small intestine

Features to note
large surface area
villi
microvilli (in cell
membranes of the
epithelial cells)

single-celled
epithelium
dense capillary
network
lacteals for
absorption of fats

Mechanism of Absorption
Partly by diffusion
Assisted by active transport e.g. co-transport
Carbohydrates
some absorbed as monosaccharides (glucose, etc)
some disaccharides absorbed onto the cell membranes, followed by enzymic
hydrolysis
Proteins
absorbed partly as amino-acids
some dipeptides/tripeptides taken onto the cell membranes, with digestion
completed by the epithelial cell.
Lipids
absorbed as fatty acids & glycerol, also as emulsified mono-/di-/tri-glycerides
mostly absorbed into lacteals some into the capillaries
Food that has been absorbed into the bloodstream is transported first to the LIVER,
in the hepatic portal vein.

Assimilation of Food in the Liver

Homeostasis
The maintenance of an approximately
constant internal environment.
Homeostasis is important because
It prevents the denaturing of enzymes
It provides the optimum conditions for metabolic processes
It makes organisms independent of conditions in the external
environment
Species with efficient homeostatic processes are able to
exploit a wider range of habitats than others.

Homeostatic mechanisms
use negative feedback
Sensor

Regulator

TOO
HIGH

Effector
increase
decrease

external
environment

SET POINT
increase
decrease

TOO LOW

Effector

Sensor

Regulator