PEDU 6209

Policy Studies in Education

Topic 4
Perspectives in Policy Studies:

Interpretive-Political Perspective

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

David Easton defines public policy as the

authoritative allocation of values for the whole
society. (Easton, 1953, p. 129)

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Stephen Ball indicates that Policy is clearly a matter

of the authoritative allocation of values; policies are
the operational statements of values, statements of
prescriptive intent (Kogan 1975 p.55). But values do
not float free of their social context. We need to ask
whose values are validated in policy, and whose are
not. Thus, the authoritative allocation of values draws
our attention to the centrality of power and control in
the concept of policy (Prunty 1985 p.135). Policies
project images of an ideal society (education policies
project definitions of what counts as education).
(Ball, 1990, p. 3)

Authoritative allocation of values

on
EMI, CMI, or what else

What is Lifelong Learning?

Which versions of Lifelong Learning
has been authoritatively endorsed ?
Whose Lifelong Learning
has been authoritatively legitimatized?

Meanings and Values implied in

Educational Vouchers
Neo-liberalism and consumersim
endorsed in Educational Vouchers
Cult of market force legitimatized in
Educational Vouchers

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

In another occasion, Ball specifies his own approach

to policy study that in current writing on policy
issue I actually inhabit two very different
conceptualization of policy. I will call these policy
as text and policy as discourse. The point I am
moving to is that policy is not one or the other, but
both: they are implicit in each other. (1994, p.15)

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Dvora Yanow defines public policy as texts that are

interpreted as they are enacted by implementers,
(and)as texts that are read by various stakeholder
groups. (2000, p. 17)
Therefore, an interpretive approach to policy
analysis is one that focuses on the meanings of
policy, on values, feelings, or beliefs they express,
and on the processes by which those meanings are
communicated to and read by various audiences.

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Basic assumptions of interpretive approach to

the study of public policy:
Public policy is not construed as self-defined
phenomenon and/or natural phenomenon treated in
natural science, but is taken as human artifact
deliberated and constructed by human beings with
specific intents and particular meanings.
Accordingly, policy studies are research efforts to
identified the meanings and values allocated,
imputed attributed to a particular policy
phenomenon by all parties concerned.

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Basic assumptions of interpretive approach

to the study of public policy:
Since the primary meaning-constructor (or more
appropriately put author) of public policy is the
modern state. As by definition the modern state is
the sovereign power and authority over a
definitive territory and its residents, hence public
policy studies are research efforts to investigate
what are the intents, meanings or values that the
state has ascribed to a particular public policies
and why.

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Basic assumptions of interpretive approach

to the study of public policy:
Furthermore, in pluralistic and democratic
political system, the author of public policy is not
confined to the sovereign state. Various interested
parties may also attribute different or even
contradictory meanings to a same policy
phenomenon and take different or even
antagonistic stances towards a policy
prescription.

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Basic assumptions of interpretive approach

to the study of public policy:
Accordingly, public policy study is research
efforts striving

to explore what and how meanings and values are

written / encoded into policy texts by the state
or the government.
to explore what and how meanings and values are
read / decoded from public policy texts by
interest groups / interpretive communities, i.e.
hermeneutic and ethnographic studies of
interpretations of public policy by social groups.

Interpretive Perspective in
Public Policy Study

Basic assumptions of interpretive approach

to the study of public policy:
Accordingly, public policy study is research
efforts striving

to explore what authoritative meanings and values

are emerged and constituted amid these diverse
interpretations of public policy.
to expose the politicking processes via which
authoritative meanings and values are constructed
within the political context of a public policy.

Intentional explanation:
States
Acts
Explaining
Georg H. von the
Wrights
Two Traditions
of
Inquiry

1916-2003

Intentional explanation:
States
Acts
Explaining
Georg H. von the
Wrights
Two Traditions
of
Inquiry

It is therefore misleading to say that

understanding versus explanation marks the
difference between two types of scientific
intelligibility. But one could say that the
intentional or nonintentional character of their
objects marks the difference between two types
of understanding and of explanation. (von
Wright, 1971, p.135)

Intentional explanation:
Explaining
the States
Acts
Wrights
Two Traditions
of Inquiry
Distinction between causal and teleological
explanations
Causal explanation: It refers to the mode of explanation,
which attempt to seek the sufficient and/or necessary
conditions (i.e. explanans) which antecede the phenomenon
to be explained (i.e. explanandum). Causal explanations
normally point to the past. This happened, because that
had occurred is the typical form in language. (von Wright,
1971, p. 83) It seeks to verify the antecedent conditions for
an observed natural phenomenon. This mode of explanation
can further be differentiated into
Deductive-nomological explanation
Inductive-probabilistic explanation

Intentional explanation:
Explaining
the
States
Acts
Wrights Two Traditions of Inquiry
Distinction between causal and teleological
explanations

Teleological explanation: It refers to the mode of

explanation, which attempt to reveal the goals and/or
intentions, which generate or motivate the explanadum
(usually an action to be explained) to take place.
Teleological explanations point to the future. This
happened in order that that should occur. (von Wright,
1971, p. 83) This mode of explanation can be differentiated
into
Intentional explanation
Rational-choice explanation
Functional explanation (Quasi-teleological explanation)

Intentional explanation:
Explaining
the
States
Acts
Re-orientating the mode of explanation in
policy studies:
Intentional explanation has been advocated by some
social scientists as the typical mode of explanation
used in social sciences. In fact, as Jon Elster
underlines, its feature "distinguishes the social
sciences from the natural sciences." (Elster, 1983, p.
69)

Intentional explanation:
Explaining
the
States
Acts
Re-orientating the mode of explanation in
policy studies:

However, to inquire into the intentions and

subjective meanings of actors and groups of actors
in public policy, for examples statesmen,
politicians, frontline policy service deliverers,
policy service recipients, political parties, interest
groups, etc. Policy researchers encounter one of
the central methodological problems in social
science. This aporia has be aptly depicted by Max
Weber as follow:

Intentional explanation:
Explaining
the
States
Acts
Re-orientating the mode of explanation in
policy studies:
"Sociology is a science concerning itself with the
interpretive understanding of social action and
thereby with causal explanation of its course and
consequence." (Weber, 1978, p.4)

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
What is meaning? a phenomenological
investigation
Alfred Schutz, one of the prominent
phenomenological sociologists of the twentieth
century suggests in his book The Phenomenology
of Social World that
Meaning is a certain way of directing ones gaze at
an item of ones experience. This item is thus
selected out and rendered discrete by a reflexive
Act. Meaning indicates, therefore, a peculiar
attitude on the part of Ego toward the flow of its
own duration. (Schutz, 1967, p. 42)

26

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
What is meaning?
This definition may be discerned with the three
constituent concepts in phenomenology, namely,
attention, intention and protention. In other words,
meanings are made up of the attention, intention
and protention that the Ego has attribute to an
object in the concrete and discrete world.

Attention refers the act of one consciousness in

selecting out an object from the concrete and discrete
world
Intention refers the act of ones consciousness in forming
a perception and attitude towards the object and retaining
it and recalling it in the future

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
What is meaning?
This definition may be discerned with the three
constituent concepts .

Protention refers to the act of consciousness of

formulating an action plan (a project) to fulfill one
anticipation towards the object

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of action

By applying the conceptual apparatus derived

from phenomenological philosophy, Schutz
proposes to clarify Max Webers conception of
subjective meaning of social action in interpretive
sociology in the following way.

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of action
.. Schutz proposes to clarify Max Webers
conception of subjective meaning of social action
in interpretive sociology in the following way.
Now we are in a position to state that what
distinguishes action from behavior is that action is
the execution of a projected act. And we can
immediately proceed to our next step: the meaning
of any action is its corresponding projected act. In
saying this we are giving clarity to Max Webers
vague concept of the orientation of an action. An
action, we submit, is oriented toward its
corresponding projected act. (Schutz, 1967, p. 61)

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of meaning-context
By applying the constituent concepts of
phenomenology, Schutz further suggests that
meanings forged within ones Ego are
configurated into a whole, which Schutz called
meaning-context. By meaning-context, Schutz
characterized it as follows

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of meaning-context
By meaning-context, Schutz characterized it as
follows
Let us define meaning-context formally: We say that
our lived experience E1, E2, , En, stand in a
meaning-context if and only if, once they have been
lived through in separate steps, they are then
constituted into a synthesis of a high order,
becoming thereby unified objects of monothetic
attention. (Schutz, 1967, p.75)

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of meaning-context
Schutz indicates that meaning-context derived
within ones inner time consciousness bears
numbers of structural features. (Schutz, 1967, p. 7478)
Unity: Though intentional acts and/or fulfillment-act
various meaning-endowing experiences are unified and
integrated into coherent whole within the Ego. Hence,
meaning-context generated from meaning-endowing
experiences also bears the internal structure of unity and
coherence.

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Schutzs concept of meaning-context
Schutz indicates that meaning-context bears
numbers of structural features..

Continuity: As lived experiences are set within the stream

of consciousness of duration (i.e. Dure), therefore, the
meaning-context thereby derived is internally structured
into a continuity of temporal ordering.
Hierarchy: Through her lived experiences in different
spheres of the life-world, individual will congifurated
various meaning-contexts for lived experiences in various
spheres of life. And these complex meaning-contexts are
structured in hierarchical order according to their degree
of meaningfulness and significance.

Policy Studies as Interpretative Studies of

Policy Meanings
Accordingly, interpretive policy studies can be
construed as research efforts to investigate
what are the attention, intention and protention that
the state granted to a policy phenomenon and/or
issue;
what are the attention, intention and protention that
interested parties within a policy arena attributed to
the policy text produced by the state;
how these attentions, intentions and protentions
are related to the meaning-context of the state and
to those of the interested parties; and why.

Policy Studies as Hermeneutic

Studies
of
Policy
Texts

Hermeneutic study of public policy

Hermeneutics is a discipline that has been primarily
concerned with the elucidation of rules for the
interpretation of texts. (Thompson, 1981, p.36)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is interpretation?

Interpretation is an attempt to make clear, to make sense

of an object of study. This object must, therefore, be a text, or
a text-analogue, which in some way is confused, incomplete,
cloudy, seemingly contradictory in one way or another
unclear. The interpretation aims to bring to light an underlying
coherence or sense. The object of a science of
interpretation must thus have (a) sense (coherence and
meaning) , distinguishable from its (b) expression, which is
for or by (c) a subject. (Taylor, 1994, p.181-182)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is interpretation?

When we speak of the meaning of a given predicament, we

are using a concept which has the following articulation:
Meaning is for or by a subject
Meaning is of something
Things only have meaning in a field, that is, in relation to the
meanings of other things. (Taylor, 1994, p. 185-186)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is interpretation?

Dimension of linguistic meaning: Meanings . is for a

subject, of something, in a field. This distinguishes it from
linguistic meaning which has a four- and not threedimensional structure. Linguistic meaning is for subjects and
in a field, but it is the meaning of signifiers and it is about a
world of referent. (Taylor, 1994, p.186)
Meaning by and/for a subject
Meaning in a field
Meaning of something
Meaning of the signifier
Meaning about a world of referent

Field
Author

Meaning

Signifier

Referent

Reader

Field
Author

Meaning By
Meaning
Meaning Of

Meaning About

Signifier

Referent

Meaning For
Reader

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is a Text? (Ricoeur, 1981, p. 145-164)

"A Text is any discourse fixed by writing" (p.145) i.e. a fixation

of speech act by writing.
Fixation enables the speech to be conserved, i.e. durability of text
A text divides the act of writing and the act of reading into two
sides, between which there is no communication. The text thus
produces a double eclipse of the reader and the writer. (p. 14647)
Policy text can therefore be primarily conceived as the
authoritative fixation of meanings by the government

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is a Text? (Ricoeur, 1981, p. 145-164)

Hermeneutical Function of Distanciation (Ricoeur, 1981, p.

131-44)
Text as language event and speech act
Distanciation between language event and meaning
Articulation of meaning in language event is the core of the whole
hermeneutic problem. (p. 134)

Text as work
Distanciation between text as the work and its authors
Hermeneutics remains the art of discerning the discourse in the
work; but this discourse is only given in and through the structures
of the work. Thus interpretation is the reply to the fundamental
distanciation constituted by the objectification of man in work of
discourse, an objectification comparable to that expressed in the
products of his labour and his art. (P. 138)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is a Text? (Ricoeur, 1981, p. 145-164)

Hermeneutical Function of Distanciation (Ricoeur, 1981, p. 13144)

Distanciation between act of writing and act of reading
The text must be able todecontextualize itself in such a way
that it can be recontextualise in a new situation as
accomplishedby the act of reading. (p. 139)
Distanciation between the text and the reference and denotation
of discourse
The world the text: Referencedistinguishes discourse from
language, the latter has no relation with reality, its words returning to
other words in the endless circle of the dictionary. Only discourse,
we shall say, intends things, applies itself to reality, expresses the
world. (p. 140)
The most fundamental hermeneutical problem is to explicate the
type of being-in-the world (life-world) unfolded in front of the text.
(p.141)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

What is a Text? (Ricoeur, 1981, p. 145-164)

Hermeneutical Function of Distanciation (Ricoeur, 1981, p.

131-44)
Four hermeneutic problems in policy-text study
Hermeneutic problem of bridging the distanciation between policy
texts and policy meanings and values
Hermeneutic problem of bridging the distanciation between policy
texts and authors (governmental) intents
Hermeneutic problem of bridging the distanciation between policy
texts and readers reading of the texts
Hermeneutic problem of bridging between the distanciation between
the policy texts and their referencing world

Field
Author
Policy
Makers

Meaning
Policy Intents
& Values

Signifier
Policy
Text

Policy Environment
Referent
and Issue

Reader
Policy Stakeholders

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public
Policy

From texts to textuality

The concept of textuality: Apart from retrieve the meanings

embedded in texts, hermeneutic study can also explore another
dimension of texts, i.e. the texture of texts, their form and
organization (Fairclough, 1995, p. 4). By introducing the
concept of textuality into hermeneutic study, text analysis can
then go beyond studying texts in linguistic forms (written or
spoken) and explore texts, which take on multi-semiotic forms.
The concept of multi-semiotic textuality is especially significant
in the age of mass communication and then the information age
In the mass-communication age, the exemplar text of multi-semiotic
form is of course televisions.
In the information age, literal texts have been further replace by
digital-imagery texts through computer-mediated-communication
and in the internet.

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of Public Policy

From texts to textuality

Dimensions of textuality of the policy text:

Genre
Frame
Rhetoric
Narrative

(To be discussed on Topic 6: Policy Making Process)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of Public Policy

From texts to textuality

As the concept of texuality is applied to policy

studies in the information age, it becomes apparent
that analysis of policy text should extend beyond
the analysis of the policy documents in its literal
form and to analyze meanings and values
embedded in policy texts in multi-semiotic forms,
such as documentaries, commercials, and news
footages in TV; and websites in Internet.

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of Public Policy

From texts to textuality and intertextuality

The concept of intertextuality: It refers to the texture of

the text when it is set against its social and history
contexts. In other words, intertextuality implies the
insertion of history into the text and of this text into
history. (Kristeva, 1986, p. 39) By the insertion of
history into the text, text absorbs and is built out of
texts from the past. (Fairclough, 1992, p.102)
As the concept of intextuality is applied to policy
studies, it implies that policy documents should be
analyzed in conjunction synchronically with other
current policy texts and/or diachronically with policy
texts in the past.

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of Public Policy

Multi-lateral hermeneutic study of public policy

The multi-lateral process of writing (encoding) and
reading (decoding) of policy texts (Ball, 1992)

Multiple authors in the production processes of policy texts

Multiple readers in the processes formulation and
implementation of policy texts

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public Policy
Multi-lateral hermeneutic study of public policy
The multi-lateral process of writing (encoding) and
reading (decoding) of policy texts (Ball, 1992)
Notions writerly and readerly texts:
The writerliness of policy texts refers to the flexibility built in policy
texts which invite the reader to join-in, to co-operate and coauthor. (p. 11) In other words, it provides readers rooms to interpret
or even re-write the policy texts.
The readerliness of policy text refers to the rigidity built in policy
texts which provide minimum of opportunity for creative
interpretation by the reader(s). (p.11)

Reciprocating, bargaining and interacting relationship between

writers and readers of policy texts

( 2006)

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public Policy
Conception of interpretive communities in policy study
(Yanow, 2000)
Given the multi-lateral features in policy interpretations, policy
arguments are therefore involved multiple communities, each of
which can have their own interpretations of the policy text and
subsequently produce their own texts (in multi-semiotic forms)
in relation to the policy argument.

artifacts
language, objects, acts

meaning(s)
values, beliefs, feelings
Figure 1.1 Meanings (values, beliefs, feelings) are embedded in policy
artifacts (language, objects, acts) in a symbolic (representational)
relationship.

artifacts
language, objects, acts

meaning(s)
values, beliefs, feelings
Figure 1.2 The use of artifacts maintains or changes their underlying
meanings.

artifacts
language, objects, acts

meaning

meaning

Interpretive
community

meaning

meaning
interpretive
community

Interpretive Interpretive
community community
meaning
interpretive community

Figure 1.4 Symbolic artifacts accommodate multiple meanings.

Field
Author

Meaning
Policy
Signifier
Text

Interpretive
community

Interpretive
community

Referent

Interpretive
Reader
community

Interpretive
community

Interpretive
community

Policy as Text and Hermeneutic Study

of
Public Policy
Conception of interpretive communities in policy study
Hence, the starting point of interpretive inquiry into a particular
policy issue is to identify the various interpretive communities
participate in the formulation and implementation processes of the
policy.
The second step access the local knowledge, i.e. the definition of
situation, knowledge at hand and system of relevance, produced by
different interpretive communities. The access can be attained by
means of document analysis, conversational interviews and
participation observations with different interpretive communities.
By juxtaposing and mapping out the similarities and differences in
the local knowledge produced by various interpretive communities
with regard to the policy in point, the architecture of arguments
constituted around the policy issue in point can be revealed.

Table 1.1 Steps in Interpretive Policy Analysis

1. Identify the artifacts (language, objects, acts) that are significant
carriers of meaning for a given policy issue, as perceived by policyrelevant actors and interpretive communities
2. Identify communities of meaning/interpretation/speech/practice that are
relevant to the policy issue under analysis
3. Identify the discourses: the specific meanings being communicated
through specific artifacts and their entailments (in thought, speech and
act)
4. Identify the points of conflict and their conceptual sources (affective,
cognitive, and/or moral) that reflect different interpretations by different
communities
Interventions/Actions
5a. Show implications of different meanings/interpretations for policy
formulation and/or action
5b. Show that differences reflect different ways of seeing
5c. Negotiate/mediate/intervene in some other form to bridge differences
(e.g., suggest reformulation or reframing)

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts

David Eastons conception political system: Easton

differentiates his conception of public policy as
authoritative allocation of values into three components
of a political system
Input of political demands and supports
Conversions of input into authoritative allocation of values
Output of policy

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Gabriel A. Almond functional categorization of political
system
Input functions

Political socialization and recruitment

Interest articulation
Interest aggregation
Political communication

Output functions
Rule-making
Rule-application
Rule adjudication

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Dahl and Lindbloms conception of political
bargaining in polyarchy
Robert Dahls of polyarchy
Two theoretical dimensions of democratization
Public contestation: It indicates the extent of
permissible opposition, public contestation, or political
competition of the government. (Dahl, 1971, p. 4)
Inclusiveness of participation: It indicates the
proportion of the population entitled to participate on a
more or less equal plane in controlling and contesting
the conduct of the government. (Dahl, 1971, p. 4)

US & UK
HKSAR

PRC

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Dahl and Lindbloms conception of political
bargaining in polyarchy
Robert Dahls of polyarchy

The concept of polyarchy: Polyarchy may be thought

of as relatively (but incompletely) democratized
regimes, or to put it in another way, polyarchy are
regimes that have been substantially popularized and
liberalized, that is, highly inclusive and extensively
open to public contestation. (Dahl, 1971, p. 8)

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Dahl and Lindbloms conception of political bargaining
in polyarchy
Social pluralism and political bargaining as necessary condition
of polyarchy
Social pluralism: Polyarchy requires a considerable degree of
social pluralism, that is, a diversity of social organizations with a
large measure of autonomy with respect to one another. (Dahl and
Lindblom, 1992, P. 302)
Political bargaining as necessity for polyarchy in social pluralism: In
social pluralism, if leaders agree on everything they would have no
need to bargain; if on the nothing, they could not bargain. Leaders
bargain because they disagree and expect that further agreement is
possible and will be profitable. Hence, bargaining takes place
because it is necessary, possible, and thought to be profitable.
(Dahl and Lindblom, 1992, p. 326)

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Corporatism: Criticism on pluralism in policy studies
Schmitters juxtaposition of concepts of pluralism and
corporatism
Pluralism can be defined as a system of interest representation in
which the constituent units are organized into an unspecified
number of multiple, voluntary, competitive, nonhierarchically
ordered and self determined ( as to type or scope of interest)
categories which are not specifically licensed, recognized,
subsidized, created or otherwise controlled in leadership selection
or interest articulation by the state and which do not exercise a
monopoly of representational activity within their respective
categories. (Schmitter, 1979, p. 15)

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Corporatism: Criticism on pluralism in policy studies
Schmitters juxtaposition of concepts of pluralism and
corporatism
Corporatism can be defined as a system of interest representation
in which the constituent units are organized into a limited number
of singular, compulsory, noncompetitive, hierarchically ordered
and functionally differentiated categories, recognized or licensed
(if not created) by the state and granted a deliberate
representational monopoly within their respective categories in
exchange for observing certain controls on their selection of
leaders and articulation of demands and supports. (Schmitter,
1979, p. 13)

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Corporatism: Criticism on pluralism in policy studies
Liberal and authoritarian corporatism
Liberal corporatism: Liberal/societal corporatism refers to the kind
of interest-mediation mechanism constituted by liberal democratic
states mainly between interest organizations of the labor and the
capital. It aims to construct a kind of welfare corporatism or
welfare state within which two major interests namely the labor
and the capital can work out some collaborations under the
mediation of the state; e.g. Scandinavian welfare state and postWWII welfare state in UK.

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Corporatism: Criticism on pluralism in policy studies
Liberal and authoritarian corporatism
Authoritarian corporatism: Authoritarian/state corporatism refers
to the kind of interest-mediation mechanism of constructed by
bureaucratic-authoritarian state among interest organizations
licensed by the state. Within authoritarian corporatism, the state is
more or less secluded from societal and political pressures and
can absolve chosen interest groupings into the corporatism to
legitimate and/or facilitate its ruling, e.g. authoritarian regimes
established in south America in the 1960s; regimes in the 1970s in
east Asia, especially the four little dragon.

Policy as Political Bargain and

Compromise to Meaning & Value Conflicts
Policy as State Apparatus in Resolving
Societal Conflicts or Struggles
(To be discussed in Topic 6)
Education Policy as text interpreted by actors,
mediated and enacted by actors in institutional
settings
(To be discussed in Topic 10-11)

Topic 4
Perspectives in Policy Substance Study:
Interpretive-Political Perspective

END