2 Boilers

2.1 Introduction to Boiler

It is an enclosed Pressure
Vessel
Heat generated by
Combustion of Fuel is
transferred to water to
become steam
Process: Evaporation
Steam volume increases to
1,600 times from water and
produces tremendous force
Care is must to avoid
explosion.

What is a boiler?

Boiler Specification
Boiler Make & Year

:XYZ & 2003

MCR(Maximum Continuous Rating) :10TPH (F & A

100oC)
Rated Working Pressure :10.54 kg/cm2(g)
Type of Boiler

: 3 Pass Fire tube

Fuel Fired : Fuel Oil

Heating surface : M2

What is F&A 100OC ?

2.2 Boiler Systems

Water treatment system
Feed water AND
Condensate system
Steam System
Blow down system
Fuel supply system
Air Supply system
Flue gas system

2.3 Boiler Types and Classifications

Fire in tube or Hot gas through

tubes and boiler feed water in shell
side

Fire Tubes submerged in water

Application

Used for small steam capacities

( upto 25T/hr and 17.5kg/cm2

Merits
Low Capital Cost and fuel
Efficient (82%)
Accepts wide & load
fluctuations
Packaged Boiler

Fire Tube Boiler

Boiler Types and Classifications

Water flow through tubes
Water Tube Boiler

Water Tubes surrounded by

hot gas
Application
Used for Power Plants
Steam capacities range from
4.5- 120 t/hr

Characteristics
High Capital Cost
Used for high pressure high
capacity steam boiler
Demands more controls
Calls for very stringent water
quality

 Package
boilers
are
generally of shell type
with fire tube design
More number of
passes-so more heat
transfer
Large number of small
diameter tubes leading to
good convective heat
transfer.
Higher thermal efficiency

Packaged Boiler

Chain Grate or Traveling Grate Stoker Boiler

Coal is fed on
one end of a
moving steel
chain grate
Ash drops off at
end
Coal grate
controls rate of
coal feed into
furnace by
controlling the
thickness of the
fuel bed.
Coal must be
uniform in size

as large lumps will

not burn out
completely

Spreader Stoker Boiler

Uses both suspension
and grate burning
Coal fed continuously
over burning coal
bed
Coal fines burn in
suspension and
larger coal pieces
burn on grate
Good flexibility to
meet changing load
requirements
Preferred over other
type of stokers in
industrial application

Pulverized Fuel Boiler

Coal is pulverised to a fine powder, so that less than 2% is +300
microns, and 70-75% is below 75 microns.
Coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler plant
through a series of burner nozzles.
Combustion temperatures from
1300-1700C
Particle residence time in the
boiler is 2-5 seconds
Most popular system for firing
pulverized coal is the tangential
firing using four burners corner to
corner to create a fire ball at the
center of the furnace
Tangential firing

Pulverized Fuel Boiler (Contd..)

Advantages
Its ability to burn all ranks of coal from anthracitic
to lignitic, and it permits combination firing (i.e.,
can use coal, oil and gas in same burner). Because
of these advantages, there is widespread use of
pulverized coal furnaces.
Disadvantages
High power demand for pulverizing
Requires more maintenance, flyash erosion and
pollution complicate unit operation

Fluidized bed Combustion (FBC) boiler

Distributed air is passed upward through a bed of solid particles
The particles are undisturbed at low velocity.As air velocity is increased,
a stage is reached when the particles are suspended in the air
Further,
increase
in
velocity gives rise to
bubble formation, vigorous
turbulence
and
rapid
mixing and the bed is said
to be fluidized.
Coal is fed continuously in
to a hot air agitated
refractory sand bed, the
coal will burn rapidly and
the bed attains a uniform
temperature

Fluidised Bed Combustion

Fluidized-bed boiler (Contd..)

Advantages :
Higher rates of heat transfer between combustion process
and boiler tubes (thus reduced furnace area and size
required),
combustion temperature 850oC is lower than in a
conventional furnace. The lower furnace temperatures
means reduced NOx production.
In addition, the limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(MgCO3) react with SO2 to form calcium and magnesium
sulfides, respectively, solids which do not escape up the
stack; This means the plant can easily use high sulfur
coal.
Fuel Flexibility: Multi fuel firing

2.4 Performance Evaluation of Boilers

There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency.
1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working
fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of the
boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference
between the losses and the energy input.
Boiler Efficiency
Evaluation Method

1. Direct Method

2. Indirect
Method

Efficiency Calculation by Direct Method

Example:
Type of boiler: Coal fired Boiler
Heat input data
Qty of coal consumed :1.8 TPH
GCV of coal
:3200K.Cal/kg

Heat output data

Qty of steam gen
: 8 TPH
Steam pr/temp:10 kg/cm2(g)/1800C
Enthalpy of steam(sat) at 10 kg/cm 2(g) pressure
:665 K.Cal/kg
Feed water temperature : 850 C
Enthalpy of feed water : 85 K.Cal/kg
Find out the Find efficiency ?
Find out the Evaporation Ratio?

Boiler efficiency ():

Q x (H h) x 100
(q x GCV)

Where Q = Quantity of steam generated per hour (kg/hr)

H = Enthalpy of saturated steam (kcal/kg)
h = Enthalpy of feed water (kcal/kg)
q = Quantity of fuel used per hour (kg/hr)
GCV = Gross calorific value of the fuel (kcal/kg)
Boiler efficiency ()=

8 TPH x1000Kg/Tx (66585) x 100

1.8 TPH x 1000Kg/T x 3200
= 80.0%

Evaporation Ratio

= 8 Tonne of steam/1.8 Ton of coal

= 4.4

What are the losses that occur in a boiler?

Steam Output

6. Surface loss

1. Dry Flue gas loss

2. H2 loss
3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Fuel Input, 100%

Boiler

Flue gas

Air
8. Bottom ash loss

Feed water
Efficiency
(by In Direct Method)

Blow down

= 100 (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)

Example:
The following are the data collected for a typical oil fired boiler.
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by indirect method and Boiler
Evaporation ratio.
Ultimate analysis of Oil
C : 84.0 %
H2: 12.0 %
S: 3.0 % O2: 1.0 %
GCV of Oil : 10200 kcal/kg
Steam Generation Pressure
: 7kg/cm2(g)-saturated
Enthalpy of steam
: 660 kCal/kg
Feed water temperature
: 60oC
Percentage of Oxygen in flue gas: 7
Percentage of CO2
in flue gas: 11
Flue gas temperature (Tf)
: 220 0C
Ambient temperature (Ta)
: 27 0C
Humidity of air
: 0.018 kg/kg of dry air

Solution

Step-1: Find the theoretical air requirement

[(11.6 x C ) {34.8 x ( H 2 O2 / 8)} (4.35 x S )] / 100

= kg/kg of oil
=[(11.6 x 84) + [{34.8 x (12 1/8)} + (4.35 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil
=14 kg of air/kg of oil

Step-2: Find the %Excess air supplied7%

O2 %
x100
21 O2%

x100

Excess air supplied (EA) =

= 21 7
= 50%
Step-3: Find the Actual mass of air supplied
Actual mass of air supplied /kg of fuel = [ 1 + EA/100] x Theoritical Air
(AAS)
= [1 + 50/100] x 14
= 1.5 x 14
= 21 kg of air/kg of oil

Step-4: Estimation of all losses

i. Dry flue gas loss
Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =

m x C p x (T f Ta )
GCV of fuel

x 100

m= mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of N2 + mass of O2

0.84 x 44 0.03 x 64 21 x 77
23
m

(21 14) x

12
32
100
100

21 kg / kg of oil
21 x 0.23 x (220 27)
x 100
10200

= 9.14 %

Alternatively a simple method can be used for

determining the dry flue gas loss as given below.

Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =

m x C p x (T f Ta )
GCV of fuel

x 100

Total mass of flue gas (m) = mass of actual air supplied + mass of
fuel supplied
= 21 + 1=22

22 x 0.23 x (220 27)

%Dry flue gas loss =
x 100 9.57%
10200

ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H 2 in fuel

9 x H 2 x {584 C p (Tf - Ta )}
=

GCV of fuel

Where, H2 percentage of H2 in fuel

=

x 100

9 x 12 x {584 0.45 (220 - 27 )}

x 100
10200

= 7.10%
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air
=

AAS x humidity x C p x (T f Ta )
GCV of fuel

x 100

21 x 0.018 x 0.45 x (220 27)

x 100
10200

= 0.322

iv Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses

For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2%

Boiler Efficiency
i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas
ii.

: 9.14%

Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel

iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air

iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss

: 7.10 %

: 0.322 %
: 2%

Boiler Efficiency = 100- [9.14+7.10+0.322+2]

= 100 18.56 = 81 (app)

Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilized for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
= 10200 x 0.81/ (660-60)
= 14.11

2.5 Why Boiler Blow Down ?

When water evaporates Dissolved solids gets concentrated
and Solids precipitates on tubes. Reduces the heat transfer rate

Intermittent Blowdown
The intermittent blown down is given by manually
operating a valve fitted to discharge pipe at the
lowest point of boiler shell to reduce parameters
(TDS or conductivity, pH, Silica etc) within
prescribed limits so that steam quality is not likely
to be affected
TDS level keeps varying
fluctuations of the water level in the boiler.
substantial amount of heat energy is lost with
intermittent blow down.

Continuous Blowdown
A steady and constant dispatch of small
stream of concentrated boiler water, and
replacement by steady and constant inflow
of feed water.
This ensures constant TDS and steam
purity.
This type of blow down is common in highpressure boilers.

The quantity of blow down required to control boiler water solids

concentration is calculated by using the following formula:
(Continuous Blow down)
Steam 3 T/hr
TDS(T) =0
TDS(S) in feed water TDS (C) =3000 ppm Allowable)
300 ppm
Blow down(B)

Blow down flow rate=300x10%/3000 =1% :=1% of 3,000 = 30 kg/hr

2.6 Boiler Water Treatment

Internal Water Treatment: It is carried out

by adding chemicals to boiler to prevent the

formation of scale by converting the scaleforming compounds to free-flowing sludges,
which can be removed by blowdown.
Limitation: Applicable to boilers, where feed
water is low in hardness salts, to low pressureshigh TDS content in boiler water is tolerated, and
when only small quantity of water is required to
be treated.
Internal treatment alone is not recommended.

External Water Treatment

Propose: External treatment is used to remove suspended

solids, dissolved solids (particularly the calcium and
magnesium ions which are a major cause of scale
formation) and dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide).
Different treatment Process :
ion exchange;
demineralization;
reverse osmosis and
de-aeration.

Ion-exchange process (Softener Plant)

In ion-exchange process, hardness is removed as the water

passes through bed of natural zeolite or synthetic resin and
without the formation of any precipitate. The simplest type is
base exchange in which calcium and magnesium ions are
exchanged for sodium ions. The sodium salts being soluble,
do not form scales in boilers. Since base exchanger only
replaces the calcium and magnesium with sodium, it does not
reduce the TDS content, and blowdown quantity. It also does
not reduce the alkalinity.
Softening reaction:
Na2R + Ca(HCO3)2 CaR + 2 Na(HCO3)
Regeneration reaction
CaR + 2 NaCl Na2R + CaCl2

Demineralization
Demineralization is the complete removal of all salts.
This is achieved by using a cation resin, which exchanges
the cations in the raw water with hydrogen ions, producing
hydrochloric, sulphuric and carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid is removed in degassing tower in which air is
blown through the acid water.
Following this, the water passes through an anion resin
which exchanges anions with the mineral acid (e.g. sulphuric
acid) and forms water.
Regeneration of cations and anions is necessary at intervals
using, typically, mineral acid and caustic soda respectively.
The complete removal of silica can be achieved by correct
choice of anion resin.

De-aeration
When heated in boiler systems, carbon dioxide
(CO2) and oxygen (O2) are released as gases and
combine with water (H2O) to form carbonic
acid, (H2CO3).
In de-aeration,
dissolved gases, such
as oxygen and carbon
dioxide, are expelled
by preheating the feed
water before it enters
the boiler.
Figure 2.9 Deaerator

Reverse
Osmosis

Energy Conservation
Opportunities
in Boilers

1. Reduce Stack Temperature

Stack temperatures greater than 200C
indicates potential for recovery of waste
heat.
It also indicate the scaling of heat
transfer/recovery equipment and hence the
urgency of taking an early shut down for
water / flue side cleaning.
22o C reduction in flue gas temperature
increases boiler efficiency by 1%

2. Feed Water Preheating using

Economiser

For an older shell boiler,

with a flue gas exit
temperature of 260oC, an
economizer could be used
to reduce it to 200oC,
Increase in overall thermal
efficiency would be in the
order of 3%.
Condensing
economizer(N.Gas) Flue
gas reduction up to 65oC

6oC raise in feed water temperature, by economiser/condensate recovery,

corresponds to a 1% saving in fuel consumption

3. Combustion Air Preheating

Combustion air preheating is an alternative
to feedwater heating.
In order to improve thermal efficiency by
1%, the combustion air temperature must be
raised by 20 oC.

4. Incomplete Combustion
(c c c c c + co co co co)

Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus

of fuel or poor distribution of fuel.
In the case of oil and gas fired systems, CO or smoke with
normal or high excess air indicates burner system problems.
Example: Poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires
can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on
tips and deterioration of diffusers.
With coal firing: Loss occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-in-ash
(2% loss).
Example :In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not burn out
completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air
passage, thus causing poor air distribution.
Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also increases carbon loss.

5. Control excess air

for every 1% reduction in excess air ,0.6% rise in efficiency.
The optimum excess air level varies with furnace design, type of burner,
fuel and process variables.. Install oxygen trim system
TABLE 2.5 EXCESS AIR LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT FUELS
Fuel
Pulverised coal

Coal

Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Bagasse
Black liquor

Type of Furnace or Burners

Completely water-cooled furnace for slagtap or dry-ash removal
Partially water-cooled furnace for dry-ash
removal
Spreader stoker
Water-cooler vibrating-grate stokers
Chain-grate and traveling-grate stokers
Underfeed stoker
Oil burners, register type
Multi-fuel burners and flat-flame
High pressure burner
Dutch over (10-23% through grates) and
Hofft type
All furnaces
Recovery furnaces for draft and sodapulping processes

Excess Air
(% by wt)
15-20
15-40
30-60
30-60
15-50
20-50
15-20
20-30
5-7
20-25
25-35
30-40

6.Blowdown Heat Recovery

Efficiency Improvement - Up to 2
percentage points.
Blowdown of boilers to reduce the
sludge and solid content allows heat
to go down the drain.
The amount of blowdown should be
minimized by following a good water
treatment program, but installing a
heat exchanger in the blowdown line
allows this waste heat to be used in
preheating makeup and feedwater.
Heat recovery is most suitable for
continuous blowdown operations
which in turn provides the best water
treatment program.

7. Reduction of Scaling and

Soot Losses
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an
insulator against heat transfer. Any such deposits should be
removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may
indicate excessive soot buildup. Also same result will occur due
to scaling on the water side.
High exit gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate poor
heat transfer performance. This condition can result from a
gradual build-up of gas-side or waterside deposits. Waterside
deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube
cleaning to remove deposits.
Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as
an indicator of soot deposits. When the flue gas temperature
rises about 20oC above the temperature for a newly cleaned
boiler, it is time to remove the soot deposits

8. Variable Speed Control for Fans,

Blowers and Pumps
Generally, combustion air control is effected by
throttling dampers fitted at forced and induced
draft fans. Though dampers are simple means of
control, they lack accuracy, giving poor control
characteristics at the top and bottom of the
operating range.
If the load characteristic of the boiler is variable,
the possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD
should be evaluated.

9. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency

As the load falls, so does the value of the mass flow

rate of the flue gases through the tubes. This reduction
in flow rate for the same heat transfer area, reduced the
exit flue gas temperatures by a small extent, reducing
the sensible heat loss.
Below half load, most combustion appliances need
more excess air to burn the fuel completely and
increases the sensible heat loss.
Operation of boiler below 25% should be avoided
Optimum efficiency occurs at 65-85% of full loads

10. Boiler Replacement

if the existing boiler is :
Old and inefficient, not capable of firing cheaper
substitution fuel, over or under-sized for present
requirements, not designed for ideal loading
conditions replacement option should be explored.
Since boiler plants traditionally have a useful life of
well over 25 years, replacement must be carefully
studied.