CE195-C1

CIVIL ENGINEERING LAWS, CONTRACTS,

SPECIFICATIONS AND ETHICS

CHAPTER 10 INTERNATIONAL
ENGINEERING
PROFESSIONALISM
MEMBERS:

CABUGATAN, NORHANNAH
GO, RITCHMAN JOREL
LOZARES, JOHN PAUL
MANALO, JOMEL
NINO, RIA ROMELA
OSIAS, JOHN LOUIE
VILLANUEVA, KAREN MAE

December 5, 2015

MAIN IDEAS
1. ECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES
SOMETIMES PRODUCE BOUNDARY-CROSSING
PROBLEMS FOR ENGINEERS. SOLUTIONS TO
THESE PROBLEMS MUST AVOID ABSOLUTISM
AND RELATIVISM AND SHOULD FIND A WAY
BETWEEN MORAL RIGORISM AND MORAL
LAXISM

MAIN IDEAS
2. SOME ACTIONS, SUCH AS EXPLOITATIONS
AND BRIBERY, CAN RARELY, IF EVER, BE
JUSTIFIED, BUT SOME SITUATIONS ARE
SUSCEPTIBLE TO CREATIVE MIDDLE WAY
SOLUTIONS, AS LONG AS THE SOLUTIONS DO
NOT VIOLATE SEVERAL FAMILIAR MORAL
STANDARDS.

MAIN IDEAS
3. BOUNDARY-CROSSING PROBLEMS ARE PRODUCED
IN HOST COUNTRIES AS LOW LEVELS OF ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT, EXTENDED FAMILY SITUATIONS, THE
PRACICE OF BUILDING BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS ON
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND CEMENTING THESE
RELATIONSHIPS WITH GIFTS, LOW LEVELS OF
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SOPHISTICATION, THE
PRACTICE OF NEGOTIATING TAX RATES AND
DIFFERING ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY
STANDARDS.

MAIN IDEAS
4. THESE FACTORS CAN, IN TURN, GIVE
RISE TO MORAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO
SUCH ISSUES AS EXPLOITATION,
BRIBERY, EXTORTION AND GREASE
PAYMENTS, NEPOTISM, EXCESSIVELY
LARGE GIFTS AND PATERNALISM.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

- crossings of national and cultural boundaries are occurring throughout

the world.

-Let us refer to boundary-crossing problems as ethical problems that are

produced

by entering countries or regions with different cultural, social, or

economic

conditions.

-We can refer to the country that one leaves as the home country and

the country that one enters as the host country.

10.2 ETHICAL RESOURCES IN

SOLVING BOUNDARY-CROSSING
PROBLEMS
CREATIVE MIDDLE WAYS

-The most obvious and, in many situations, the most useful resource for
resolving

boundary-crossing problems is a creative middle way solution, in which

both the

host country and the home country customs are honored in some form.

WHAT SHOULD BE AVOIDED?

1. MORAL LAXISM - the laxist allows solutions to moral problems that involve
serious violations of moral standards

Because there is no option in this situation that allows me

to act in an ideal moral way, I will simply abandon any moral considerations and
act

in a way that is most compatible with my self-interest or with the self-interest of

my

firm.

-This option involves an abandonment of ethical and professional considerations

and may in some cases even lead an engineer to embrace choices that are illegal.

2. MORAL RIGORISM

-moral principles must be strictly applied in every situation.

-The moral rigorist is unwilling to accept the fact that although a given
course of action is not the ideal, it may be the best that one can do in
the situation, morally speaking, and it may not involve any serious
violation of moral principles.

 Sometimes there may be such serious moral problems

with one of the options
that a creative middle way solution is not appropriate
and even a person who is
not a moral rigorist could not accept it.

How do we determine, then, when a creative middle way solution, or for

that

matter any other solution, is so far outside the moral boundaries that it
cannot be

accepted? How do we identify those tests, standards, or considerations

that would

help us determine when a solution to a boundary-crossing problem is or is

not acceptable?

CRITERIA FOR MAKING STANDARDS:

1. as nearly transcultural or universal as possible

2. should have an immediate plausibility.

FIRST STANDARD: GOLDEN RULE

Would I be willing to accept the effects of this practice?

It is difficult to imagine, for example, that anyone would want to be

exploited, be forced to violate deeply held moral beliefs, or have ones
own person not respected.

TWO SIMPLE SOLUTIONS: (usually prove unsatisfactory)

1. ABSOLUTIST SOLUTION- the laws, customs, and values of

the home country should always be followed. Home-country standards,

however,

may pose serious, if not insurmountable, problems if applied in host

countries.

2. RELATIVIST SOLUTION- When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

Second Standard: Universal Human Rights

All living humansor perhaps all livingpersonshave

human rights
One does not have to be a particular kind of person or a
member of some specific nation or religion to have human
rights
some conception ofindependent existence: People have
human rights independently of whether they are found in the
practices, morality, or law of their country or culture.

however, this idea of universality needs several qualifications.

rights help protect the moral agency of individuals.
Utilitarians: respecting the rights of individuals promotes
human happiness or well-being.
Rights talk ; near-universal vocabulary for ethical
discourse

Measures of the cross-cultural nature of rights talk:

Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR)
- a declaration adopted by theUnited Nations General
Assemblyon 10 December 1948 at thePalais de Chaillot,
Paris.
-The Declaration arose directly from the experience of
theSecond World Warand represents the first global
expression of rights to which allhuman beingsare inherently
entitled.

Significance:
In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people
to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective
recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the
Declaration
served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws,
international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of
regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and
promoting human rights.

Two later documents :

The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Generally, these documents ascribe to all human
beings the rights to:
Life . Liberty . Security of person . Recognition before the law.
An
impartial trial. Marriage, Property ownership, Freedom of thought,
Peaceful assembly and participation in government, Social security and
work, Education, Participate in and form trade unions,
Nondiscrimination, and A minimal standard of living.

James Nickel has proposed three criteria for determining when a

right is what we shall call an international right; Nickels conditions
most relevant to our discussion are the following:
1. The right must protect something of very general importance.
2. The right must be subject to substantial and recurrent threats.
3. The obligations or burdens imposed by the right must be
affordable in relation
to the resources of the country, the other obligations the country
must fulfill, and fairness in the distributions of burdens among
citizens

Third Standard: Promoting Basic

Human Well-Being
Another test for determining whether a solution to a boundary-crossing problem is
satisfactory is whether the solution promotes the well-being of host country citizens.
Through economic development: engineering and business can promote well-being

Nussbaum has derived a set of basic human functional capabilities:

basic capabilities that a person needs to be able to satisfy in order to live
a reasonable quality of life
1. Being able to live a human life of normal length.
2. Being able to enjoy good health, nourishment, shelter, sexual
satisfaction, and physical movement.
3. Being able to avoid unnecessary and nonbeneficial pain and to have
pleasurable experiences.
4. Being able to use the senses, imagine, think, and reason.

5. Being able to form loving attachments to things and persons.

6. Being able to form a conception of the good and to engage in critical

reflection about the planning of ones life.

7. Being able to show concern for others and to engage in social

interaction.

8. Being able to live with concern for and in relation to animals, plants,
and the world of nature.

9. Being able to laugh, play, and enjoy recreational activities.

10. Being able to live ones own life and nobody elses

It is important to note that engineering is involved, either directly or indirectly, in many of

these factors, which, according to Nussbaum, contribute to human well-being.
How??
According to Nussbaum;

By providing clean water and sanitation, engineering makes an enormous contribution to

health and longevity.

Production of fertilizer and other aids to farming increases the ability of a host country to
feed its citizens.

Technological development contributes to the level of wealth in a country and thereby

plays an important part in promoting almost all of the other capabilities

Fourth Standard: Codes of

Engineering Societies
Many of the major engineering codes are clearly intended to apply to
their members wherever they live, even if they practice engineering in
host countries.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; explicitly an
international organization. Code: the importance of our technologies in
affecting the quality of life throughout the world.

another example,

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME-International) makes

similar references to the international environment.

A 1996 decision by the National Society

of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Board of Ethical Review (Case 96-5) held

that an
NSPE member is bound by the NSPEs code of ethics, even in another
country.

Professional codes give important guidance for engineers in the

international arena as well as for engineers in their home country.

10.3 ECONOMIC
UNDERDEVELOPMENT:
THE PROBLEM OF EXPLOITATION

Exploitation

Exploitation is defined as the act of using resources or the act of treating

people unfairly in order to benefit from their efforts or labour.

Exploitation is usually wrong because it violates several of the moral

standards.

It violates the right to a minimal standard of living.

Conditions for the risk of exploitation:

(According to Robert E. Goodin)

There is an imbalance of power between the dominant and subordinate

or exploited party.

The subordinate party needs the resources provided by the dominant

party to protect his or her vital interests.

For the subordinate party, the exploitative relationship is the only

source of such resources.

The dominant party in the relationship exercises discretionary control

over the needed resources.

The resources of the subordinate party are used without adequate

compensation.

10.4 PAYING FOR SPECIAL

TREATMENT: THE PROBLEM OF
BRIBERY

On the basis of this paradigm case, we can give the following definition
of a bribe:

A bribe is a payment of money (or something of

value) to another person in exchange for his giving
special consideration that is incompatible with the
duties of his office, position, or role.
A bribe also induces one person (the person given
the bribe) to give to another person (the person
giving the bribe) something that he does not
deserve.

Why forbid bribery?

If an engineer takes a bribe, she is creating a situation that will most likely corrupt her
professional judgment and tarnish the reputation of the engineering profession.

If she offers a bribe, then she engages in activity that will also tarnish the reputation
of her profession if discovered and probably violate her obligation to promote the wellbeing of the public.

Bribery induces the person who takes the bribe to act immorally by violating the
obligation to act on behalf of the interests of his client or employer.

Bribery can undermine the efficiency of the market by inducing

someone to buy products that are not the best for the price.

Bribery can give someone an unfair advantage over his competitors,

thus violating the standards of justice and fair play.

10.5 PAYING FOR

DESERVED SERVICES:
THE PROBLEM OF
EXTORTION AND GREASE
PAYMENTS

EXTORTION

Extortion is the act of threatening someone with harm (that the

extorter is not entitle to conflict) to obtain benefits to which the extorter
has no prior right.

An executive of Company A hopes to sell 25 airplanes to the national

airline of County X. the deal requires the approval of the head of the
ministry of transportation in County X. The executive offers the official
$300,000 to authorize the purchase of the planes from Company A. The
official accepts the bribe.

Gulf Oil Corporation paid $4 million to the ruling Democratic Republican

Party of South Korea. Gulf was led to believe that its continued flourishing
in South Korea depended on these payments.
Conditions :

If the payments gave Gulf special advantages over its competitors, the
payments were bribe.

If they would have been required of any competitor as a condition of

operating without undeserved reprisals or restrictions, the payments
might be classified as extortion

Difference bet. moral status of paying

extortion vs. accepting bribes

Paying extortion will not usually corrupt professional judgement

Although paying extortion can tarnish ones professional reputation, it

will probably not do so as much as paying bribe

Paying extortion will not cause one to act contrary to the best interests
of ones employer or client

Paying extortion does not undermine the efficiency of the market by

promoting the selection of inferior or expensive products, but it does
divert funds from their most efficient use

Paying extortion does not give one an unfair advantage over other,
except insofar as others do not or cannot pay the extortion

GREASE PAYMENTS

Grease payments are offered to facilitate routine bureaucratic decisions,

such as hastening the passage of goods through customs.

They usually involve relatively small amounts of money compared to

ordinary bribery or extortion.

CLASSIFICATION OF GREASE
PAYMENTS

Petty extortion

1.

Does not give an unfair advantage over others

2.

Often tacitly condoned by government

Petty bribes
1.

Able to get special considerations

2.

Head of the line advantages

COMMON GROUND FOR EXTORTION

AND GREASE PAYMENTS

If doing business in the country promotes the wellbeing of the host and
home countries, and there are no serious violations of other moral
standards, both may be justifiable.

10.6 THE EXTENDED

FAMILY UNIT: THE
PROBLEM OF NEPOTISM

extended family definition. A type offamilyin which relatives in addition to

parents and children (such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins) live in a
single household.

Nepotism
the practice among those with power or influence of favoring relatives or friends,
especially by giving them jobs.

Ex. An example of nepotism is the CEO of a company giving his under qualified niece a
high paying job.

Nepotism at work

Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at a job, attaining the

job or being paid more than other similarly situated people.

Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a
family connection, which is most common in small, family run
businesses.

On one hand, nepotism can provide stability and continuity.

Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment

from non-related employees, and a generally negative attitude towards
superior positions filled through nepotism.

Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter, considering it too troublesome and
disruptive.

Ethical issues:

The policy of hiring many members of an employees family would be morally

unacceptable

It would interfere too much with economic efficiency by allowing to many people to be
hired who are not best candidates for the job

It will also be too severe a violation of considerations of justice and the right to
nondiscrimination

But,

it makes a concession to the deeply held convictions of many people in a

tradition-oriented culture

it promotes harmony in the workplace

10.7 BUSINESS AND FRIENDSHIP: THE

PROBLEM OF EXCESSIVE GIFTS

Exchange of gifts is a way to cement personal friendships

Ethical issues:

impersonal nature in business transactions, separated as they from personal

friendships and family ties, is unnatural and offensive

sometimes it look too much like bribes

Suggested solution:

Give the gifts to the community not to individual

Gift giving should not be used in a way that exerts undue pressure to win
business

Gift limits are given in terms of US dollars

10.8 THE ABSENCE OF

TECHNICALSCIENTIFIC
SOPHISTICATION: THE
PROBLEM OF
PATERNALISM

PATERNALISM

overriding the ability of another person to decide what he or she should

do (or should not do) for the recipients own good.

The PATERNALIST is the one who decides for another.

The RECIPIENT is the person who is the object of the paternalistic

action.

PATERNALISM and EXPLOITATION

If exploitation is imposing my will on another for my good, paternalism

is imposing my will on another for the others good.

WEAK PATERNALISM
and
STRONG PATERNALISM

WEAK
PATERNALISM

the paternalist overrides the decision-making powers of the

recipient when there is reason to believe the recipient is not
exercising his moral agency effectively anyhow.

STRONG
PATERNALISM
the paternalist overrides the
decision-making powers of
the recipient, even when
there is no reason to believe
the recipient is not exercising
his moral agency effectively

If any one of the following conditions is present, a

person may not be able to exercise his moral
agency effectively, so any one of them is
A person may
be under
emotional
pressure, so she is unable
sufficient
toundue
justify
weak paternalism:
to make a rational decision.
" A person may be ignorant of the consequences of her action, so
she is unable to make a genuinely informed decision."
A person may be too young to comprehend the factors relevant to
her decision, so she is unable to make a rational and informed
decision.
Time may be necessary for the paternalist to determine whether
the recipient is making a free and informed decision, so the
paternalist may be justified in intervening to keep the recipient
from making any decision until it is clear that the recipient is
indeed making one that is free and informed.

Example 1:
Robins firm operates a large pineapple plantation in Country X. The
firm has been having what it considers excessive problems with
maintaining the health of its workers. It has determined that a major
reason for the health problems of its workers is the unsanitary
conditions of the traditional villages in which they live. In order to
remedy this problem, it has required the workers to leave their
traditional villages and live in small, uniform houses on uniformly laidout streets. Managers believe that the workers can be educated to
appreciate the cleaner conditions and the aesthetic qualities of the
new villages, but the workers have strongly objected. They protest
that the new accommodations are boring and have destroyed much
of their traditional way of life.

If the workers do not fully understand the health risks

associated with their traditional village life, the managers were
exercising weak paternalism in forcing them to move into the more
sanitary villages. If the workers did understand the

consequences but still preferred more disease and perhaps

even less health care for the disease, in order to preserve their
traditional way of life, the managers were exercising strong
paternalism. Since strong paternalism is more difficult to justify, the
burden of proof on the managers to show that their action was
justified would be much greater.

Example 2:
John is employed by a large firm that sells infant formula in Country X.
The firm is also the only one that markets infant formula in Country X.
Many mothers mix the formula with contaminated water because
they do not understand the health dangers to their infants. They also
dilute the formula too much in order to save money, unaware that
this leads to malnutrition in their babies. John recommends that his
firm 10.8 The Absence of TechnicalScientific Sophistication 225 stop
selling the product in Country X. Management agrees and stops the
sale of the product in Country X.

In this case, at least one of the conditions sufficient to justify weak

paternalism is satisfied, so the action was probably justified. Of
course, in stopping the sale of the infant formula, Johns firm deprives
the mothers in Country X of the ability to feed their babies with infant
formula. There is ample evidence, however, that the mothers (or at
least many of them) were not able to exercise their moral agency in a
free and informed way.

10.9 DIFFERING BUSINESS

PRACTICES: THE PROBLEM
OF NEGOTIATING TAXES

James works for a U.S. firm in Country X, where it is customary for the
government to assess taxes at an exorbitant rate because it expects
firms to report only half their actual earnings. If a firm reported its
actual earnings, the taxes would force it out of business. James firm
wonders whether it is morally permissible to adopt the local practice
of dishonestly reporting its profits, even though it would be illegal to
do this in the United States. It would report it profits honestly to the
U.S. tax office.

10.10 CHAPTER
SUMMARY

BOUNDARY CROSSING PROBLEM

Economic

Social

Cultural conditions

RESOLVING BOUNDARY PROBLEMS

Follow the standards of the host country (relativist solution)

Follow the standards of the home country (absolutist solution)

Creative middle way is the best way to resolve boundary-crossing

problems

1. Golden rule
2. rights
3. utilitarian considerations
4. and the guide lines in professional codes

LOW LEVELS OF ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT

Bribery is also common in host countries with low level s of economic

development

Extortion and grease payments are also especially common in lesser

industrialized countries

EXTENDED FAMILY

Nepotism- obligation to get other family member jobs

BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS

Built with personal relationships and cemented with gifts

Gift size that arent large enough to be considered bribery is another

creative middle way between rejection of host country ways of doing
business and actions that involve bribery.

PATERNALISM

Weak Paternalism preserves and protects a persons moral agency, can

often be justified

Strong Paternalism overrides moral agency for the sake of some

substantial good, is more difficult to justify. It can only be justified in
cases in which the good is considerable.

NEGOTIATING TAXES

situations in which participating in this way of levying taxes without

engaging in bribery and gaining an inequitably low tax rate is an
acceptable creative middle way between having to leave the host
country, on the one hand, and engaging in morally unjustifiable
corruption, on the other hand.

ASEAN & APEC Engineers

Association of Southeast Asian

Nations
(ASEAN)
is a political and economic organization of tenSoutheast
Asiancountries. It was formed on 8 August 1967 by
Indonesia,Malaysia, the Philippines,Singapore , andThailand,
Brunei,Cambodia,Laos, Myanmar (Burma), andVietnam
It aims include acceleratingeconomic growth,social progress,
andsociocultural evolution among its members, protection of regional
peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to resolve
differences peacefully

ASEAN Engineering Register

Objectives:
To promote recognition of ASEAN engineering team within and outside
ASEAN;
To safeguard and promote the professional interest of engineers,
engineering technologists and technicians;
To foster high standards of formation and professional practice and
regularly review them;

 To promote cultural and professional links among members of the

engineering profession within ASEAN;
To enhance wealth of ASEAN countries;
To provide sufficient data regarding the formation of an individual
engineers, engineering technologists and technicians for the
benefit of prospective employers;
To encourage a continuous update of the quality of engineers,
engineering technologists and technicians by setting, monitoring
and reviewing standards.

ASEAN Engineers Register

MinimumRequirements:
The criteria stipulated below are the minimum requirements for an
applicant to be admitted into the Register:
Must possess an Engineering Degree recognized by the home country;
Must be a full-time member of the Engineering Organization or
TechnologicalAssociation in the home country and is licensed to practice
engineering in the home country;

Must have a minimum of seven (7) years of post-graduate

professional working experience in an engineering environment, of
which two years of experience involve theresponsible charge of
significant work;
Must maintain his professional development at an acceptable
level; and
Must agree to be guided by the ASEAN Engineers Code of
Practice.

Benefits of ASEAN Registered

Engineer
Bigger market for expertise.

Better employment prospects.

Greater avenue for sharing of knowledge,
expertise and technology.
Increased related business potential.
Wider networking and strategic alliances.
More potential for research and development.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

(APEC)
is a forum for 21Pacific Rimmember economies that
promotesfree trade throughout theAsia-Pacificregion.
It was established in 1989 in response to the growing
interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of
regionaltrade blocsin other parts of the world.
According to the organization, it is"the premier forum for
facilitating economic growth, cooperation, trade and investment
in the Asia-Pacific region" established to "further enhance
economic growth and prosperity for the region and to strengthen
the Asia-Pacific community

APEC Engineers

There is an agreement in place between a number of APEC countries for

the purpose of recognizing substantial equivalence of professional
competence in engineering. APEC countries can apply to become
members of the agreement by demonstrating that they have in place
systems which allow the competence of engineers to be assessed to the
agreed international standard set by the APEC Engineer agreement.

Benefits of being an APEC Engineer

Professional engineers have the opportunity to have their
professional standing recognized within the APEC region thereby
contributing to the globalization of professional engineering
services.
Adds value to individuals who may wish, at some stage, to work
in these economies.
Each member economy of the APEC agreement has given an
undertaking that the extra assessment required to be registered
on the local professional engineering register will be minimized
for those registered under the APEC Engineer agreement.

APEC Register
Becoming anAPEC Engineerof the Philippines may
allow you to join overseas projects and practice your
profession in APEC Engineer economies without
having to undertake further examination or interview.
You will be able to obtain discounted dual membership
in both your APO and an equivalent engineering
society or institution overseas.

Areas of Engineering
Eleven general areas of practice are currently
available for registration as APEC Engineer:
Agricultural Engineering, Civil/Structural Engineering,
Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,
Electronics and Communications Engineering, Sanitary
and Environmental Engineering, Geodetic
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Metallurgical
Engineering, Mining Engineering, and Naval
Architecture and Marine Engineering.

How to become an APEC Engineer?

An Application form for registration for Candidates.

To send documents for certification and registration in the Russian APEC

Engineer Register and the International APEC Engineer Register.

Understand and apply practically the following documents:

APEC Engineer Standard
Code of Ethics
List of competences of APEC Engineer and other regulatory documents

Pass examination within professional engineering disciplines that are

compared against the criteria of the APEC Engineer Standard.

QUESTIONS
1. Give 4 ethical resources and/or standards for solving boundary-crossing
problems

2. Give 3 indicators or common issues that shows low levels of economic

development among countries

3. To become an aspiring APEC engineer one must have a full

understanding and know-how of practically applying the following
documents: ____________ and ______________ .

ICEBREAKER

YOU SHOULD NEVER DO

THIS IN
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

1.

A.

INDONESIA

B.

TUNISIA

C.

GERMANY

D.

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

2.

A. FRANCE

B. GERMANY

C. RUSSIA

D. ITALY

3.

A. FRANCE

B. MIDDLE EAST

C. SINGAPORE

D. JAPAN

4.

A. INDONESIA

B. VIETNAM

C.GREECE

D. BRAZIL

5.

A. GREECE

B. BRAZIL

C. CHINA

D. PAKISTAN

6. NODDING MEANS NO, SHAKING

HEAD MEANS YES

A. TUNISIA

B. UZBEKISTAN

C. BULGARIA

D. AUSTRIA

7. NOT OK WHEN YOU DO THE OKAY

SIGN

A. BRAZIL

B. GERMANY

C. MALAYSIA

D. BULGARIA

A. WHERE THUMBS UP SHOULDNT BE

RAISED

A. MIDDLE EAST

B. NORTH AMERICA

C. SOUTH AMERICA

D. SOUTH AFRICA

SOURCE: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article3000521/Handy-infographic-explains-hand-gestures-world.html