By: Val Tocitu Jason Kulpe Alexandre Mariuzza: ME 4447/6405 October 29, 2009

ME 4447/6405
October 29th, 2009
By:
Val Tocitu
Jason Kulpe
Alexandre Mariuzza
Presenter: Val Tocitu
Introduction and definitions

Types of PWM
Methods of generation
Characteristics of PWM
Applications and examples
Implementation on the HCS12
10/29/2009
Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Jason Kulpe, Alex Mariuzza
What is it?
Output signal alternates between on and off within
specified period
Controls power received by a device
The voltage seen by the load is directly proportional
to the source voltage
10/29/2009

Definitions
Duty Cycle: on-time / period
Vlow is often zero
VAVG DVHI (1 D)VLOW
10/29/2009

Types of Pulse Width

Pulse center fixed, edges modulated
Leading edge fixed, tailing edge modulated
Tailing edge fixed, leading edge modulated
Pulse Width constant, period modulated
10/29/2009

Types of Pulse Width
10/29/2009

Analog Generation of PWM

Analog PWM signals can be made by combining a
saw- tooth waveform and a sinusoid
PWM output is
formed by the
intersection of
the saw-tooth
wave and
sinusoid
10/29/2009

Digital Methods of Generating PWM

Digital: Counter used to handle transition
Delta : used to find the PWM at a certain limit
Delta Sigma: used to find the PWM but has advantage of
reducing optimization noise
10/29/2009

Applications to DC Motors
The voltage supplied to a DC motor is proportional
to the duty cycle
Both brushed and brushless motors can be used
with PWM
Both analog and digital control techniques and
components are available
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Three Phase AC motors with PWM

3 different AC currents at
different phases
Phase: 120 degrees apart
Creates constant power
transfer
Rotating magnetic field
Pulses substitute for AC
current
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12
Space Vector Modulation

Used for three-phase AC motors
Convert DC current to AC current
Gates turned on/off at different intervals
3 PWM created
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Motor Control Diagrams
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14
Advantages of PWM
average value proportional to duty cycle, D
low power used in transistors used to switch
the signal
fast switching possible due to MOSFETS
and power transistors at speeds in excess
of 100 kHz
digital signal is resistant to noise
less heat dissipated versus using resistors
for intermediate voltage values
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Disadvantages of PWM
Cost
Complexity of circuit
Radio Frequency Interference
Voltage spikes
Electromagnetic noise
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16
Presenter: Jason Kulpe

Types of PWM
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17
Applications of PWM
In the past, motors were controlled at intermediate
speed by using resistors to lower delivered power
Electric stove heater
Lamp dimmers
Voltage regulation convert 12 volts to 5 volts by
having a 41.7% duty cycle
Sound production: PWM controlled signals give
sound effects similar to a chorus
Power transfer: PWM used to reduce the total
power given to a load without relying on resistive
losses
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PWM used with D/A conversion

commonly used in toys
lowpass filter smooths out transients from harmonic effects
frequency values of harmonics doesnt change, but the
amplitude does, which adjusts the analog output signal
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PWM used to transmit data

in telecommunications
clock signal is found inside PWM signal

more resistant to noise effects than binary data alone
effective at data transmission over long distance transmission lines
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Frequency of the PWM

Upper
Limits
Lower
Limits
Signal
1. Must be at least 10 times higher
than the control system frequency
2. Higher than 20kHz audible
frequency of sounds to avoid
annoying sound disturbances,
caused by magnetostriction
3. If too low the motor is pulsed, not
continuous, because the motors
inductance can not maintain the
current
4. Inverse of frequency should be
much less than the motor/load time
constant
5. Higher error from ripple voltages
10/29/2009
1. If too high the inductance of the

motor causes the current drawn to
be unstable
2. MOSFET transistor generates heat
during switching
3. Limited by resolution of controller
4. Eddy currents generated in
electromagnetic coils which lead to
adverse heating
5. Heat losses in electromagnetic
materials is proportional to
frequency squared

22
Example: PWM with 555 Timer

Potentiometer is
used to adjust
the duty cycle
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23
Example: Specifying circuit elements
Requirements
1. Maxon EC-16 brushless motor,
Time constant = 8.75 ms
1
8.5 ms
f
f 117 Hz
2. Want to avoid audible frequencies

f 20 kHz
3. PID control loop running at 150 Hz
f 10 150 Hz
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Example: Specifying circuit elements

This circuit has a
PWM frequency
according to:
1.44
f
R1C1
Check constraints
Set f to 25 kHz to add in a factor of safety
Choosing C1 to be 100 nF, R1 is 576 ~ 500
Recalculating with these values f = 28.8 kHz
10/29/2009

117 Hz
20 kHz
1.5 kHz
25
Matlab can do PWM!
The procedure works similar

to the generation of analog
PWM using a sinusoid and
saw-tooth wave
10/29/2009

26
Where can I buy a PWM

controller?
Texas Instruments
Digikey
Mouser Electronics
Critical Velocity Motor
Control
BIGGER
SMAL
L
Texas Instruments
TAS5508B
8-Channel Digital
Audio PWM
Processor
64 pin chip, max
192 kHz frequency
$7.25
10/29/2009
18 kHz frequency
Continuous 28
amps
Pulse Width
Modulation - Val Tocitu,
$55.95
120 amps, used

for hybrid
vehicles
$469.00
H
U
G
E
27
Presenter: Alex Mariuzza

Types of PWM
10/29/2009

28
PWM Implementation
The signal is outputted
through Port P
Six Channels
Dedicated Chip
10/29/2009

29
PWM Module
Each channel has a
dedicated counter
Programmable duty
and period
Independently
adjustable clock,
polarity, and
alignment
10/29/2009

30
PWM Module- Other Features

8-bit and 16-bit resolution supported
Two PWM channels can be concatenated together
Four source clocks (A, SA, B, SB)

Emergency Shutdown
Some changes take a complete cycle to be implemented
Modes of Operation:
Normal: everything is available
Wait: Low-power consumption and clock disabled
Freeze: Option to disable clock is available
10/29/2009

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PWM Configuration
Configured through
specific registers
Registers are located from
$00E0 to $00FE
There are repeated
registers (ex. 0013-0017)
10/29/2009

32
PWM Enable Register
Located at $00E0
Code Warrior variable: PWME
Set PWMEx to 0 to disable the channel
Set PWMEx to 1 to enable it
Channel is activated when bit is set
If 16-bit resolution used, then PWME4/2/0 are deactivated
10/29/2009

33
PWM Polarity Register
Located at $00E1
Code Warrior variable : PWMPOL
Set PPOLx to 0, signal goes from low to high
Set PPOLx to 1, signal goes from high to low
10/29/2009

34
PWM Clock Select Register
Located at $00E2
Code Warrior variable : PWMCLK
Set PCLK5/4/1/0 to 0 to use clock A
Set PCLK5/4/1/0 to 1 to use clock SA
Set PCLK3/2 to 0 to use clock B
Set PCLK3/2 to 1 to use clock SB
10/29/2009

35
PWM Prescaler Register
Located at $00E3
Variable: PWMPRCLK
Used to prescale clocks A and B
Bus Clock Frequency

Resolution PWM Frequency
Bus Clock Frequency
N
(2 1) PWM Frequency
Presclarer
10/29/2009

36
PWM Scale A Register

Located at $00E8
Code Warrior variable:
PWMSCLA
Store a hexadecimal value
in order to change the clock
frequency of SA
Note: if set to $00,
PWMSCLA is set to 256
10/29/2009
Clock SA Frequency

Clock A Frequency
2 PWMSCLA
37
PWM Scale B Register

Located at $00E9
Code Warrior variable:
PWMSCLB
Store a hexadecimal value
in order to change the clock
frequency of SA
Note: if set to $00,
PWMSCLB is set to 256
10/29/2009
Clock SB Frequency

Clock B Frequency
2 PWMSCLB
38
PWM Center Align Register
Located at $00E4
Code Warrior variable: PWMCAE
Set CAEx to 0 for left align signal
Set CAEx to 1 for center align signal
Note: can only be set when channel is disabled
10/29/2009

39
Signal Alignment
Signal changes when counter
is equal to period register

In the center aligned mode,
the PWM counter goes from a
down-count to a up-count to
down-count, etc.
In the left aligned mode, the
PWM counter is a up-counter
and rests to zero when it
overflows
10/29/2009

40
PWM Control Register

Located at $00E5
Code Warrior variable: PWMCTL
Set CONxy to 0 to keep PWM channels separate (8-bit)
Set CONxy to 1 to concatenate PWM channels x and y together (16-
bit).
Channel y determines the configuration
x becomes the high byte and y becomes the low byte
Bits PSWAI and PFRZ set either wait or freeze mode
Changes only occur when channels are disabled
10/29/2009

41
PWM Counter Register

Located at $00EC through $00F1
Code Warrior variable: PWMCNTx
One per channel
It tracks the cycle counts
It can be read
If written to, the count is reset to $00 and a up-count starts
10/29/2009

42
PWM Period Register

Located at $00F2 through $00F7
Variable: PWMPERx
Store a hexadecimal value to limit
maximum value of counter

Changes occur when:
Current period ends
Counter is written to
Channel is disabled
10/29/2009
Left-Aligned:
PWMPERx
PWM Source Frequency

PWM Signal Frequency
Center-Aligned:
PWM Source Frequency
PWMPERx
2 PWM Signal Frequency

43
PWM Duty Register
Located at $00F8 through $00FD

Code Warrior variable: PWMDTYx
Store a hexadecimal value to control when signal changes
Changes occur when:
Current period ends
Counter written to
Channel is disabled
Duty Cycle PWMPERx
100
Duty Cycle PWMPERx
Polarity = 1: PWMDTYx
100
Polarity = 0: PWMDTYx PWMPERx 10/29/2009
44
PWM Shutdown Register
Located at $00FE
Code Warrior variable: PWMSDN
PWMENA: Enables and disables emergency shut down
PWMIF (Interrupt flag): Set when an input is detected in pin 5
PWMIE (Interrupt Enable): Enables and disables CPU interrupts
PWMRSTRT: Resets the counters
PWMLVL (Shutdown Output Level): Determines if output is high
or low when shutdown
PWM5IN (Input Status): Reflects status of pin 5
45
PWM5INL: Determines active level of pin 5
How it all works

Clock A, SA, B, or SB
10/29/2009

46
Example
8 106
Prescaler 8
3.91 4 PWMPRCLK $02
(2 1) 8 103
Desired Signal:
8 kHz PWM signal
Duty Cycle of 30%
Left Aligned
Channel 1
Low High
8-bit channel
8 10 6
4
2 10 6
PWMPER1
250 $FA
8 103
8 103
PWMDTY1 250 -
30 250
175 $AF
100
PWMCLK $00
PWMCAE $00
PWMPOL $00
PWMCTL $00
PWME $02
10/29/2009

47
Assembly Code
PWME
EQU
PWMPOL EQU
PWMCLK EQU
PWMPRCLK
PWMCAE
PWMCTL EQU
PWMPER1
PWMDTY1
ORG
LDAA
STAA
STAA
STAA
STAA
LDAA
STAA
LDAA
STAA
LDAA
STAA
STAA
10/29/2009
$00E0
$00E1
$00E2
EQU
EQU
$00E5
EQU
EQU
$00E3
$00E4
$00F3
$00F9
$1000
#$00
PWMCLK ; Sets source clocks to clock A
PWMPOL ; The signal goes from low to high
PWMCTL ; Makes all channels 8-bit
PWMCAE ; Signals are left aligned
#$FA
PWMPER1
; Sets the period to 250 clock cycles
#$AF
PWMDTY1
; Makes the duty cycle equal to 30%
#$02
PWMPRCLK
; Sets the prescaler to 4
PMWE
; Enables and starts channel 1
48
C Code
#include <hidef.h>
/* common defines and macros */
#include <mc9s12c32.h> /* derivative information */
#pragma LINK_INFO DERIVATIVE mc9s12c32
// Set up chip in expanded mode
MISC = 0x03;
PEAR = 0x0C;
MODE = 0xE2;
//Set up PWM Registrer
PWMCLK = 0;
// Sets source clocks to clock A
PWMPOL = 0;
// The signal goes from low to high
PWMCTL = 0;
// Makes all channels 8-bit
PWMCAE = 0;
// Signals are left aligned
PWMPER1 = 250; // Sets the period of the signal to 250 clock
PWMDTY1 = 175; // Makes the duty cycle equal to 30%
PWMPRCLK = 2;
//Sets the prescaler to 4
PMWE = 2;
//Enables and starts channel 1
.
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49
REFERENCES
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation
http://www.netrino.com/Embedded-Systems/How-To/PWM-Pulse-Width-Modulation
Cetinkunt, Sabri. Mechatronics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006. Print.
http://www.jimfranklin.info/microchipdatasheets/00538c.pdf
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_6/chpt_6/9.html
http://www.dprg.org/tutorials/2005-11a/index.html
http://www.4qdtec.com/pwm-01.html
http://skywalker.cochise.edu/rgill/ch02elec.ppt
http://pcbheaven.com/wikipages/PWM_Modulation/
Matlab 2009 online documentation
http://www.epanorama.net/links/motorcontrol.html#ac
MC9S12C Family, MC9S12GC Family Reference Manual, (pp. 347-382)
10/29/2009

50
Questions?
10/29/2009

51

By: Val Tocitu Jason Kulpe Alexandre Mariuzza: ME 4447/6405 October 29, 2009

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By: Val Tocitu Jason Kulpe Alexandre Mariuzza: ME 4447/6405 October 29, 2009

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ME 4447/6405

October 29th, 2009

Presenter: Val Tocitu

Introduction and definitions

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

VAVG DVHI (1 D)VLOW

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Types of Pulse Width

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Types of Pulse Width

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Analog Generation of PWM

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Digital Methods of Generating PWM

reducing optimization noise

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Three Phase AC motors with PWM

Creates constant power

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Space Vector Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Motor Control Diagrams

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Presenter: Jason Kulpe

Introduction and definitions

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

PWM used with D/A conversion

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

PWM used to transmit data

clock signal is found inside PWM signal

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Frequency of the PWM

1. If too high the inductance of the

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Example: PWM with 555 Timer

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Example: Specifying circuit elements

2. Want to avoid audible frequencies

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Example: Specifying circuit elements

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Matlab can do PWM!

The procedure works similar

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Where can I buy a PWM

120 amps, used

Presenter: Alex Mariuzza

Introduction and definitions

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

PWM Module- Other Features

Four source clocks (A, SA, B, SB)

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,

PWM Enable Register

Pulse Width Modulation - Val Tocitu,