Strain gauges

When a gauge is subjected to a positive strain , its length

increases while its area of cross-section decreases.

Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its

length and inversely proportional to its area of cross
section.

The resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain.

Strain gauges
Types of strain gauges

Unbounded metal strain gauges

Bonded metal strain gauges

Bonded metal foil strain gauges.

Bonded semiconductor strain gauges

Vacuum deposited thin metal strain gauges

Diffused metal strain gauges

Strain gauges
Unbounded metal strain gauges

This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two

points in an insulating medium such as air.

The wire may be made of various metal such as copper

nickel, chrome nickel, nickel iron alloys etc.

Dia. is about 0.003mm , gauge factor of 2 to 4, length of

wire is 25 mm

At initial condition , the strains and resistances of four

arms are nominally equal, with the result the o/p voltage of
the bridge e0 =0

Strain gauges

Unbounded metal strain gauges

Strain gauges
Unbounded metal strain gauges

Application of pressure increases the resistance of the

gauge , which causes an unbalance of the bridge producing
an output voltage .

Bonded wire strain gauges

Consists of a fine wire of about 0.025 mm dia.

The grid is cemented to carrier(base) which may be a thin

sheet of paper or Bakelite or sheet of Teflon.

The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the

specimen under study.

This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to the

grid wires.

Strain gauges

Bonded wire strain gauges

Strain gauges
For excellent and reproducible result ..
The strain gauges should have a high value of gauge factor,

The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as

possible since this minimizes the effects of undesirable
variations of resistance in the measurement circuit.

The strain gauges should have a low resistance temp. coefficient.

Should have a linear characteristics.

Base materials

Epoxy,Bakellite cellulose etc.

Strain gauges
Bonded metal foil strain gauges

Strain gauges
Bonded metal foil strain gauges use identical materials to wire
strain gauges and are used today for most general purpose
stress analysis application

Foil type gauges have a much greater heat dissipation

capacity .

Used for higher operating temp.

Foil gauges are formed from sheets less than 0.005 mm thick .

Foil type gauge are mounted on a flexible carrier film about

0.025 mm thick which is made of glass phenolic

Strain gauges
Semiconductor strain gauges

Are used where a very high gauge factor .

The resistance of semi-conductor changes with change in

applied strain.

Also change in resistance due to change in resistivity also.

Semi-conducting material such as silicon and germanium

are used as resistive materials

Gold leads are generally employed for making the

contacts.
Electrical resistivity is the measure of how much a material
resists carrying an electrical current.

Strain gauges
Semiconductor strain gauges

Strain gauges
Rosettes
A combination of strain gauges.
In practical situation, it is not possible to locate the
principal stresses.
It is not possible to orient the strain gauges along the
direction of principle stresses.
Hence there is a necessary to evolve a strain gauge
measurement system which measures the values of
principle strain and stresses without actually knowing
their directions.

Strain gauges
Rosettes

Strain gauges
Temperature compensation
Poisson's method
This temp. compensation utilizes two active gauges Rg1
and Rg3 which are bonded at right angles to the structure
member .
Rg1 is in tension , but the gauge Rg3 reduces in length
depending up o the poissons ratio, in the adjacent arm of
the bride.
The output of the bridge circuit is increased by a factor of
(1+)
e0 =( 1+ )Gf ei /4

Strain gauges
Temperature compensation
Poisson's method
This temp. compensation utilizes two active gauges Rg1
and Rg3 which are bonded at right angles to the structure
member .
Rg1 is in tension , but the gauge Rg3 reduces in length
depending up o the poissons ratio, in the adjacent arm of
the bride.
The output of the bridge circuit is increased by a factor of
(1+)
e0 =( 1+ )Gf ei /4

Strain gauges
Temperature compensation
Self temp. compensation
In many applications it may be difficult to obtain temp.
compensation by adjacent arm compensating gauge acting
either as a dummy gauge or a compensating gauge.
This case may arise , where it is not possible to keep the
gauge s at the same temp.
Two type of self compensated gauges
(1)Selected melt gauge
Based up on the fact that through proper manipulation of
alloy and processing , usually cold working, some control
over temp. sensitivity of the grid material may be obtained.

Strain gauges
Temperature compensation
Two type of self compensated gauges

(2) Dual element gauge

In this case of self compensation two wire elements are
connected in series to make one strain gauge assembly.
The two elements have different temp. characteristics and
are so chosen that the net strain produced on account of
temp. changes is minimized.

Strain gauges
Load cells
Device that can be used for force measurement .
An elastic member is used as a primary transducer and
strain gauges a secondary transducer.
The factors which are considered in the design of load
cells using strain gauges are stiffness of elastic member ,
optimum positioning of gauges on the element and
provision for temp. compensation.
Tensile compressive cell
The arrangement uses four strain gauges each mounted at
90 to each other.
Two strain gauges experience tensile stresses while other
two are subjected to compressive stress.

Strain gauges
Load cells
Tensile compressive cell
e0

=( 1+ )Gf ei /4

In case all the gauges are similar temp. compensation is

obtained as all gauges contribute equal to unbalance the
bridge.
Torque measurement methods using strain gauges
Dynamic measurement of torque transmitted by a rotating
shaft is based up on the angular displacement or twist in
the shaft.

Strain gauges
Load cells
Torque measurement methods using strain gauges
e0

=( 1+ )Gf ei /4

Strain may be measured by electrical means to indicate

torque.
The strain in the shaft may be measured by means of strain
gauges attached to its surface
The gauges should be so mounted that they give max.
sensitivity to the strain produced by torsion.

Strain gauges
Load cells
Torque measurement methods using strain gauges
e0

=( 1+ )Gf ei /4

Multiple strain gauges may be installed and connect in a

bridge circuit configuration so that any deformation due
to axial loads is cancelled out in the final readout.

Temperature compensation