Historical Reference Frames of

British Culture & Civilization

Course 1
The British Context. Chronology of
significant dates in British history.

Historical growth

Recent opinion polls in British society show that historical knowledge

of the countrys past is lacking among many Britons of all ages.
The constitutional title of Britain is the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland (UK).
It comprises many islands off the north-western European mainland
surrounded by sea: North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the
Atlantic Ocean.
From about 600 BC-AD 1066 these islands were invaded by:
Celts, Belgic tribes
Romans, Germanic tribes (Anglo-Saxons)
Scandinavian & Normans.

Between the IX and XII centuries the early settlers and invaders contributed to
gradually formation of the nations of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

Ireland & Wales were under English control in XII-XIII centuries

Scotland was joined dynastically to England in 1603.

1707 - Political union between England, Wales and Scotland (Great Britain)

1801 Political union between Great Britain and Ireland.

1921 the southern part of Ireland left the union to become the Republic of
Ireland.

There were periods of ideological conflict:

-Royalist & tribal battles
-Civil Wars
-Nationalist revolts by the Scots, Welsh & Irish against the English
-Struggles with European powers
-Religious disagreement
-Social dissension & political quarrels

State structures:
-Monarchy
-Government
-Parliament
-The law
Evolved slowly to provide an umbrella organization for the four component
countries (England, Scotland, Wales & Ireland), despite frequent struggles
among and within them.

In the 16th century was created an overseas British empire where:

the structures & philosophies of the British statehood were exported
world markets for British goods were established
The British empire = extension of English monarchs military expansionism
within the islands and in Europe.
They sought:
- raw materials
- possessions
- international trade & power overseas

In the 18th century Britain developed:

- manufacturing
- financial base
- industry
- science
- medicine
- navy

In the 19th century Britain became a dominant industrial & naval world power.
It developed principles of:
-

Law
Property
Business
Liberty
Capitalism
Parliamentary democracy
Civil society.

Britishness = British identity shared by all the component countries of

the UK.

This was tied to:

Britains imperial position in the world
An identification with the powerful institutions of the state (monarchy, law,
Parliament, the military and Protestant religion)

Internal reforms in the British state:

Extension of the vote (19th - 20th centuries)
Diminishing power of the aristocratic House of Lords
Increasing authority of the popularly elected House of Commons in the
parliamentary structure
Decline of the executive monarchy
Nationalization (20th century - the state became the owner of public industries &
services)
Creation of a welfare state.

In the 20th century Britain experienced a relative decline.

Its social & economic strength was seriously reduced by:
the effects of two world wars in the first half of the century
the dismantling of its earlier imperial global power in the second half.
Its ethnic composition, state structures, social policies, religious beliefs &
economic institutions were affected by:
profound domestic developments
external pressures.

Britain rarely saw itself as an integral part of mainland Europe.

Its outlook was westwards and worldwide.
Its physical isolation from Europe was slowly changed by:
Increased cooperation between Britain & European countries
The opening in 1994 of a Channel rail tunnel between England & France.
British politicians argue that isolationism is not a viable option in a globalized
world.

Britain was involved in overseas military action in:

Bosnia and Kosovo,
two Iraq wars,
Afghanistan and other trouble spots worldwide
as a partner in the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO)
as a partner in the American-led War against Terror.
As a result of such commitments and alliances Britain has attracted
terrorist threats itself:
bomb attack on London bus, Tavistock Square , 7 July 2005 (13 people killed)
Suicide bombers attacked the London transport system including the
Underground (43 people killed)

Structural change

Structural change in Britain was conditioned by social, economic, legal,

religious & political developments.

Parliament, law & government initiate policies in top-down form.

(decisions are decided by centralized bodies in the power hierarchy and
then imposed on lower levels).

Democratic deficit = the distance between decision-makers & general

public.
British people complain that they should be consulted about institutional
changes in their society & have a greater voice in local & national affairs.

Other structures on both public & private levels of social activity:

Sports
Families
Leisure activities
Neighbourhoods
Youth culture
Faith groups
Local communities
They have their own particular value-systems & organizations.
They have a bottom-up form (policies & behaviour are linked to the
concerns of societys grassroots).

The British way of life & British identities are determined by how people
function within and react to social structures. For example:
Government policies impinge upon citizens & their families
Commercial organizations influence choices in food, music, fashion
The media try to shape news values & agendas
Sponsorship & advertising may determine the nature of sports, the media &
other activities
Devolved government bodies in Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland initiate
policies for their own areas
Local government in UK conditions local activities
Community life is subject to small-scale influences.

The number & variety of top-down & bottom-up structures mean that there are
many different ways of life in contemporary Britain, which all contribute to
the pluralistic nature of the society.
Critics suggest that pluralism & diversity have led to:
Social fragmentation & anti-social behaviour
A weakened civic responsibility
A decline in nationally-accepted values & identities
Uncertainty & confusion.

Organizational structures must adapt to new situations if they are to survive.

The performances of British national and local institutions are debated and
many are found wanting.
The existing structures must cope with and reflect the needs, complexity &
demands of contemporary life in a more efficient way.
There are debates on modernization employed by British politicians to
indicate positive progress and opposed arguments about how Britain should
be organized socially, politically and economically.

Contemporary conditions

Britons have long prided themselves on pragmatism & common sense.

The British way of life has been based on the social structures, economic
relationships & justice.
A multicultural Britain can no longer rely for its cohesion on common
background.
Immigration has enhanced & enlivened the country, but has brought to Britain
people with beliefs, values & backgrounds far removed and at odds with the
prevailing culture.
A misunderstood multiculturalism has led to social & cultural fragmentation.

Britain today is a complex society in which significant diversity and change have
created problems as well as advantages.
Present divisions in British society:
The influence of London in its relationship to the rest of the country
The cultural distinctiveness and separate identities of Wales, Scotland, Northern
Ireland and England
Demands for greater autonomy in local government and less centralized control
from London
Disparities between affluent and economically depressed areas throughout the
country (including the crime, decay & social deprivation of many inner-city
locations
Cultural & economic gaps between North & South

 Political variety (reflected in concentrated support for different political

parties in different parts of Britain
Debates on the positions of women, small-interest groups & minority
ethnic communities (the latter involving tensions between British national
identity & ethnicity)
Campaigns or demands for a variety of individual & collective rights (with
the conflict between rights & responsibilities)
A gulf between rich & poor (with a growing underclass of disadvantaged,
alienated or rootless people)
Tensions between the cities and the countryside
Generational differences between young & old in all ethnic groups

Opinion polls suggest that the British themselves feel that they have become:
More aggressive
More selfish
Less tolerant
Less kind
Less moral
Less honest
Less polite

The new modes of behaviour of the British society are:

Materialism
Egotism
Relativistic values
Celebrity worship
Vulgarity
Trivialization
sensationalism

Such developments have led to a visible increase in:

Antisocial behaviour
Yobbishness
Public scruffiness
Vandalism
Serious alcohol & drug abuse
Disputes between neighbours
Violent crime & assaults
Public disorder
The growth of criminal gangs
Increase gun & knife attacks
which disturb many British people.

Opinion polls indicate that many British people feel that the negatives have
increased and are now more apparent in everyday life.
Britain was transformed sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse by:
Consumerism
Multi-ethnic growth
Feminism
Greater individual freedom
More tolerance for alternative lifestyles (acceptance of gays)
Technological advances & new economic policies

Conservative governments under Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) tried to

reform social structures & promote new economic attitudes.
They reduced the states role in public affairs & replaced it by market
forces
They focused upon economic growth, competition, privatization
They created choice & standards in education & health
They reformed trade unions, some professions & local government
The Conservative Prime Minister John Major (1990-1997) supported free
market or neo-liberal economic programmes.

The Labour government under Tony Blair (1997-2005) followed & extended
the Conservative economic programmes and tried to modernize Britain by
creating a new, young and inclusive society.
It spent large amounts of public money on:
- education
- health
- transport
- social security
- police service

Opposition to some government policies:

under Thatcher:
-Local government property tax
-National Health Service reforms & privatization
under Blair:
-Fuel prices
-Rural programmes
-Iraq war

They demonstrate that social change can occur in various ways.

Additional forces for change are:
Opposition political parties with their alternative programmes
Interest or pressure groups exerting influence upon decision-makers
Grassroots movements protesting at some action or lack of action
Rebellion by Members of Parliament of all parties against proposed
government legislation
Campaigns by the media to promote reform or uncover scandals
The weight of public opinion for or against official plans

Central government initiatives in London & those of

devolved government in Scotland & Wales are the
single most important factor in determining structural
change at national and local level as politicians
implement policies or respond to events.

The British allow their governments a great deal of power in the running of the
country.
Governments:
- govern with one eye on public opinion
- attempt to gain acceptance for their policies.
The British assume they are quick to voice disapproval if their interests are
threatened.
Protest = is a natural & traditional reaction.
Dissension may be neutralized by the promise of reform, or simply ignored by
government, politicians & bureaucrats.

British attitudes to Britain

Britons are worried about the quality & services of their society & where the
country is heading.
A series of different opinion polls report on the most important issues facing
British society (%):
Crime/law and order/violence/vandalism (40)
National Health Service (36)
Race relations/immigration (32)
Education (26)
Defence / international terrorism (58)
Pensions / social security (14)
Economy/economic situation (11)
Morality/individual behaviour (10)

The list shows a wide range of concerns from the

economy to nuclear weapons
& includes many
structural features or institutions which suggest a
picture of contemporary Britain.

Housing (8)
Taxation (8)
Unemployment (7)
Drug abuse (7)
Pollution / environment (6)
Poverty / inequality (5)
Transport / public transport (4)
Public services in general (3)
Local government (3)
Inflation (2)
Petrol prices/fuel (2)
Rural life (1)
Low pay / minimum wage (1)
Nuclear weapons (1)