Measurements in Fluid Mechanics

Grading
The final course grade will be based on the total points earned during the
semester. The distribution of points is as follows:

One hour Tests

Class project/Asss
ATwo in-semester exams
Final examination
TOTAL

30% (3 OHTs)
10%
12.5% each
25%

= 25
= 25
= 25
= 25
= 100 points

Lecture 2. Description of flows

ow velocity and velocity fields

Lagrangian description

x3

Cartesian coordinate system (x1, x2, x3)

Xn( t )

Position of fluid element n at initial time t0 : Xn,0

Xn,0

Trajectory of fluid element

Xn

Xn(t)+Xn

Position of fluid element at time t : Xn(t)

Displacement Xn in t

x1
x2

Position after displacement: Xn(t+t)=Xn(t)+Xn

Flow velocity:

Acceleration:

Velocity field:

V = Vn(t) = V(Xn,0,t) for n=1,2,3,,N

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ow velocity and velocity fields

Eulerian ( spatial ) description

Velocity field:

Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)

Acceleration:

= + +

= ++

Local acceleration

ate of strain tensor:

Vorticity:

i=1,2,3

Convective acceleration

ow velocity and velocity fields

Eulerian ( spatial ) description

Velocity field:

Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)

Acceleration:

i=1,2,3

Local acceleration

= + +
= ++

Convective acceleration

nalytical description of flows

Conventional Fluid Mechanics is based on four basic axiomatic principles
-Applied to fixed control volume
- The conservation of mass (or continuity equation)
- fluid density
v - control volume

- Newtons second law (or momentum equation)- velocity vector

A - area of surface
- external force

- The first law of thermodynamics

(or energy equation)

- The second law of thermodynamics

- heat transfer rate

- mechanical power
u - specific internal energy

p - pressure
g - gravitational
acceleration
z upwards vertical axis
s - specific entropy
T - temperature

ommonly used theoretical approach

1. Fluid statics
2. Inviscid incompressible flows - simplest mathematical model of fluid flow
3. Viscous incompressible flows - with constant density.
4. Compressible flows - with significant density variation
5. Turbulent flows - flow properties vary rapidly and randomly in space and time.
6. Complex flows

atterns of fluid motion

Pathlines

- trajectories of individual fluid particles

- may be visualized with multiple exposed particle
images

Stroboscopic illumination of oil drop in laminar pipe flow

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atterns of fluid motion

Streamlines
- A streamline is a curve such that tangent to it at any point gives direction of the velocity
at that point, i.e.

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atterns of fluid motion

Streamlines
- may be visualized with smoke lines in stead air flow
- may be visualized with tuft screen method

Smoke lines around an airfoil model

in a wind-tunnel

Trailing vortices behind an inclined

delta-wing visualized by a tuft screen
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atterns of fluid motion

Timelines - each formed by a set of fluid particles at a previous instant in time,
and displaced in time as the particles move
- may be visualized with Hydrogen-bubble technique

Consecutive rows of hydrogen bubbles indicating

Velocity profiles a flat plat boundary layer

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atterns of fluid motion

Streaklines - each formed by locus of all fluid particles passing through a fixed position
- may be visualized with dye lines in water flow

Vortex flow behind a yawed cylinder visualized

with mixture of ink, milk and alcohol
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atterns of fluid motion

In steady flows, pathlines, streaklines and streamlines coincide.
In unsteady flows, they may be vastly different.

Red Pathline
Blue Streakline
Dash Sreamline

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Lecture 3. Similarity and flow motion patterns

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milarity and non-dimensionalization

Different ways to perform measurement:
1. Actual system under actual operation condition - expensive and impossible in most cases

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milarity and non-dimensionalization

Different ways to perform measurement:
2. Actual system under modified condition

- expensive and impossible in many cases

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milarity and non-dimensionalization

Different ways to perform measurement:
3. Model system under controlled condition

- low cost and possible

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milarity and non-dimensionalization

Dimensional analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity
of experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon
F f ( L, V , , )

F f ( L, V , , , )

VL
F

V 2 L2

VL
F

g
,
V 2 L2

CF g Re

CF g Re,

p V
p L p

Fm m V m Lm
Fp

Scaling Law
Three purpose of dimensional analysis
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters to help in design of experiments and reporting
of experimental results-The first is enormous savings in time and money
2. To obtain scaling laws so that the prototype performance can be predicted from model
exp.
3. To (sometimes) predict trends in relationship between parameters-. A second
side benefit of dimensional analysis is that it helps our thinking
and planning for an experiment or theory.

milarity and non-dimensionalization

Similarity - When the scaling law is valid, we say that a condition of similarity
exists between the model and the prototype
- enable application of measured properties with model system and
modified condition to actual system under actual condition.

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milarity and non-dimensionalization

Requirements of similarity
1. Geometrically similar - Similarity of shape, the same ratios of all corresponding
dimensions-Scale factor

2. Kinematically similar - Similarity of motion- Implies similarity of length (Geometry

similarity) and Similarity of Time interval

3. Dynamically similar

- same force directions and constant ratio of magnitudes

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ommon dimensionless parameters

Reynolds number - ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces

V characteristic velocity kinematic viscosity

dynamic viscosity
( = )

L characteristic length

Mach number - used to describe effects of compressibility

Pressure coefficient

V flow velocity

c speed of sound

- ratio of pressure and inertia forces

p pressure pref reference pressure

density

V flow velocity

Drag coefficient - ratio of drag force and inertia forces

FD drag forceA frontal area

density

V flow velocity

Lift coefficient - ratio of lift force and inertia forces

FL lift force A frontal area

density

V flow velocity

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ommon dimensionless parameters

Prandtl number - ratio of rates of diffusion of momentum and heat due to molecular motions

thermal diffusivity
kinematic viscosity dynamic
viscosity
cp specific heat under contant pressure k thermal
conductivity

Schmidt number - ratio of rates of diffusion of momentum and mass in fluid

c molecular diffusivity of a fluid mixture of species in a

fluid mixture

Froude number - square represents ratio of inertia to gravitational forces

V flow velocityL characteristic length

g gravitational acceleration magnitude

Weber number

- ratio of inertia to surface-tension forces

surface tension density
L characteristic length
V flow velocity

Capillary number - ratio of viscos forces to surface-tension forces

dynamic
V flow velocity
viscosity
surface tension
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ommon dimensionless parameters

Cavitation number

Pv vapour pressure

Nusselt number

Biot number

- ratio of total and conductive heat transfer rates in a fluid

h overall heat transfer
coefficient

k thermal conductivity of
fluid

- ratio of heat transfer rates to surrounding fluid and solid interior

Peclet number

h overall heat transfer

coefficient

k thermal conductivity of
solid

- ratio of heat convection and heat conduction

L characteristic length
V flow velocity
thermal diffusivity

Grashof number

- ratio of buoyancy forces and viscous forces

thermal expansion
Tcoefficient
temperature difference
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ommon dimensionless parameters

Rayleigh number - for free thermal convection

Marangoni number - for convection induced by surface-tension gradients

- for concentration gradients

- for temperature gradients

Richardson number

- for density-stratified flows

- ratio of potential energy associate with gravity and kinetic energy.

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ommon dimensionless parameters

Taylor number

- for rotation flows

Rossby number

rotation
rate

- for rotation flows

- ratio of inertia and Coriolis forces

Strouhal number - for periodic vortex shedding from bluff objects

f frequency of vortex shedding

Knudsen number - for gas

mean free path

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References
- The slides are adapted from the Lectures Notes for Measurements in Fluid
Mechanics by Lichuan Gui, Dr.-Ing. Available from http://lcgui.net/
- The various figures/pictures are from different websites from the internet

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