Chapter 42

Circulation and Gas

Exchange
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Overview: Trading with the Environment

Every organism must exchange materials with
its environment; this exchange ultimately
occurs at the cellular level
In unicellular organisms these exchanges
occur directly with the environment
For most of the cells making up multicellular
organisms direct exchange with the
environment is not possible

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Overview: Trading with the Environment

The feathery gills projecting
from a salmon are an example
of a specialized exchange
system found in animals
Most complex animals have
internal transport systems that
circulate fluid, providing a
lifeline between the aqueous
environment of living cells and
the exchange organs, such as
lungs, that exchange chemicals
with the outside environment
Figure 42.1

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Gastrovascular Cavities
Simple animals, such as cnidarians
Have a body wall only two cells thick that encloses a
gastrovascular cavity

The gastrovascular cavity

Functions in both digestion and distribution of
substances throughout the body
Circular
canal

Mouth

Radial canal
Figure 42.2

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5 cm

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

More complex animals
Have one of two types of circulatory systems:
open or closed

Both of these types of systems have three

basic components
A circulatory fluid (blood)
A set of tubes (blood vessels)
A muscular pump (the heart)

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Open Circulatory Systems

In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs
Blood bathes the organs directly in an open
circulatory system
Heart

Hemolymph in sinuses
surrounding ograns

Anterior
vessel

Figure 42.3a

Lateral
vessels

Ostia

Tubular heart
(a) An open circulatory system

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Closed Circulatory Systems

In a closed circulatory system
Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct
from the interstitial fluid
Heart

Interstitial
fluid

Small branch vessels

in each organ

Dorsal vessel
(main heart)

Auxiliary hearts

Figure 42.3b

Ventral vessels

(b) A closed circulatory system

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Survey of Vertebrate Circulation

Humans and other vertebrates have a closed
circulatory system often called the cardiovascular
system
Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system
consisting of blood vessels and a two- to fourchambered heart
Arteries carry blood to capillaries, the sites of
chemical exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid
Veins return blood from capillaries to the heart
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Vertebrate circulatory systems

AMPHIBIANS

REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS)

MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Lung and skin capillaries

Lung capillaries

Lung capillaries

FISHES

Gill capillaries

Artery

Right
systemic
aorta

Pulmocutaneous
circuit

Gill
circulation

Heart:
ventricle (V)
A
Atrium (A)
Systemic
circulation
Vein

Systemic capillaries

Pulmonary
circuit

V
Right

V
Left
Right
Systemic
circuit

Systemic capillaries
Figure 42.4

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Pulmonary
circuit
A Left
Systemic
V aorta

Left

Systemic capillaries

A
V
Right

A
V
Left
Systemic
circuit

Systemic capillaries

Flow of Blood Through the Mammalian Heart

7

Capillaries of
head and
forelimbs

Anterior
vena cava

Pulmonary
artery

Aorta

Pulmonary
artery

9
6

Capillaries
of right lung

Capillaries
of left lung

2
4

Pulmonary
vein

Right atrium

11

Left atrium

Pulmonary
vein

10

Left ventricle
Right ventricle

Aorta

Posterior
vena cava
8

Figure 42.5
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Capillaries of
abdominal organs
and hind limbs

Two Human Circulatory Circuits: Pulmonary & Systemic

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The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look

A closer look at the mammalian heart
Provides a better understanding of how double
circulation works
Pulmonary artery

Aorta
Pulmonary
artery

Anterior vena cava

Left
atrium

Right atrium

Pulmonary
veins

Pulmonary
veins

Semilunar
valve

Semilunar
valve

Atrioventricular
valve

Atrioventricular
valve

Posterior
vena cava

Figure 42.6

Right ventricle

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Left ventricle

A Must Know for Exam 2

You should be able to trace the flow of blood
from an extremity (either an arm or a leg) to the
heart, from the heart to the lungs and back to
the heart, and from the heart back to the
extremity
Warning! Many hypothetical patients have
died of cardiovascular system failure during
this exam in the past

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Solving the Hearts Engineering Problem

Question: If the atria contract downward, why

dont the ventricles continue the contraction
downward and blow two holes in the bottom of
the heart?
Answer: The Sino-Atrial (SA) node conducts
the atrial impulse to the Atrio-Ventrical (AV)
node and Purkinje fibers located in the hearts
interventricular septum so ventricles can
contract upward

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The control of heart rhythm

1 Pacemaker generates

wave of signals
to contract.

SA node
(pacemaker)

2 Signals are delayed

3 Signals pass

at AV node.

to heart apex.

4 Signals spread

Throughout
ventricles.

Bundle
branches

AV node

Heart
apex

ECG

Figure 42.8
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Purkinje
fibers

Blood Composition and Function

Blood consists of several kinds of cells
suspended in a liquid matrix called
plasma
The cellular elements occupy about
45% of the volume of blood
Blood plasma is about 90% water
Among its many solutes are inorganic
salts in the form of dissolved ions,
sometimes referred to as electrolytes

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Blood Composition and Function

The cellular elements of mammalian blood
Cellular elements 45%
Cell type

Separated
blood
elements

Number
per L (mm3) of blood

Functions

Erythrocytes
(red blood cells)

56 million

Transport oxygen
and help transport
carbon dioxide

Leukocytes
(white blood cells)

5,00010,000

Defense and
immunity

Lymphocyte

Basophil
Eosinophil
Neutrophil
Platelets

Figure 42.15
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Monocyte
250,000
400,000

Blood clotting

Gas Exchange
Gas exchange occurs across specialized
respiratory surfaces
Gas exchange
Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and
disposes of carbon dioxide
Respiratory
medium
(air of water)

O2

CO2

Respiratory
surface

Organismal
level
Circulatory system

Cellular level
Energy-rich
molecules
from food

Cellular respiration

Figure 42.19
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ATP

Gas Exchange
Animals require large, moist respiratory
surfaces for the adequate diffusion of
respiratory gases
Between their cells and the respiratory
medium, either air or water
Lungs of terrestrial animals provide a moist,
thin, vascularized membrane for gas exchange
with blood

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Gills in Aquatic Animals

In some invertebrates
The gills have a simple shape and are
distributed over much of the body
(a) Sea star. The gills of a sea
star are simple tubular
projections of the skin.
The hollow core of each gill
is an extension of the coelom
(body cavity). Gas exchange
occurs by diffusion across the
gill surfaces, and fluid in the
coelom circulates in and out of
the gills, aiding gas transport.
The surfaces of a sea stars
tube feet also function in
gas exchange.

Gills
Coelom

Figure 42.20a
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Tube foot

Gills in Aquatic Animals

Many segmented worms have flaplike gills
That extend from each segment of their body
(b) Marine worm. Many
polychaetes (marine
worms of the phylum
Annelida) have a pair
of flattened appendages
called parapodia on
each body segment. The
parapodia serve as gills
and also function in
crawling and swimming.

Parapodia

Figure 42.20b
Gill
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Gills in Aquatic Animals

The gills of clams, crayfish, and many other
animals
Are restricted to a local body region
(c) Scallop. The gills of a
scallop are long,
flattened plates
that project from the
main body mass
inside the hard shell.
Cilia on the gills
circulate water around
the gill surfaces.

(d) Crayfish. Crayfish and

other crustaceans
have long, feathery
gills covered by the
exoskeleton. Specialized
body appendages
drive water over
the gill surfaces.

Gills
Gills

Figure 42.20c, d
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Gills in Aquatic Animals

The effectiveness of gas exchange in some
gills, including those of fishes
Is increased by ventilation and countercurrent
flow of blood and water
Oxygen-poor
blood

Lamella

%
% 15
40

Figure 42.21

30
%
60
%

Operculum

90
%

Water
flow

10
0%

70
%

Gill
arch

Blood
vessel

Oxygen-rich
blood

5%

Gill arch

Water flow
over lamellae
showing % O2
Gill
filaments

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O2

Blood flow
through capillaries
in lamellae
showing % O2

Countercurrent exchange

Tracheal Systems in Insects

The tracheal system of insects
Consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate
the body
Air sacs
Tracheae

Spiracle

(a) The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched internal

tubes that deliver air directly to body cells. Rings of chitin reinforce
the largest tubes, called tracheae, keeping them from collapsing.
Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs that require
a large supply of oxygen. Air enters the tracheae through openings
called spiracles on the insects body surface and passes into smaller
tubes called tracheoles. The tracheoles are closed and contain fluid
(blue-gray). When the animal is active and is using more O2, most of
the fluid is withdrawn into the body. This increases the surface area
of air in contact with cells.
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Figure 42.22a

Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look

A system of branching ducts
Conveys air to the lungs

Nasal
cavity
Pharynx

Branch
from the
pulmonary
artery
(oxygen-poor
blood)

Branch
from the
pulmonary
vein
(oxygen-rich
blood)
Terminal
bronchiole

Left
lung

Alveoli
50 m

Larynx
Esophagus
Trachea

50 m

Right lung
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Diaphragm

SEM

Heart

Figure 42.23
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Colorized SEM

Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look

In mammals, air inhaled through the nostrils
Passes through the pharynx into the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and dead-end alveoli,
where gas exchange occurs

Breathing ventilates the lungs

The process that ventilates the lungs is
breathing
The alternate inhalation and exhalation of air

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How an Amphibian Breathes

An amphibian such as a frog
Ventilates its lungs by positive
pressure breathing, which
forces air down the trachea

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How a Mammal Breathes

Mammals ventilate their lungs
By negative pressure breathing, which pulls air
into the lungs
Rib cage
expands as
rib muscles
contract

Air inhaled

Rib cage gets

smaller as
rib muscles
relax

Air exhaled

Lung
Diaphragm

INHALATION
Diaphragm contracts
(moves down)

Figure 42.24
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EXHALATION
Diaphragm relaxes
(moves up)

Lung volume increases

As the rib muscles and
diaphragm contract

Heimlich Maneuver and Dr.

Heimlichs morbid quest

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How a Bird Breathes

Besides lungs, bird have eight or nine air sacs
That function as bellows that keep air flowing
through the lungs
Air

Air
Anterior
air sacs
Trachea
Posterior
air sacs

Lungs

Lungs

Air tubes
(parabronchi)
in lung

EXHALATION
Air sacs empty; lungs fill

INHALATION
Air sacs fill

Figure 42.25
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1 mm

Control of Breathing in Humans

The main breathing control centers
Are located in two regions of the brain, the
medulla oblongata and the pons
Cerebrospinal
fluid

1 The control center in the

medulla sets the basic
rhythm, and a control center
in the pons moderates it,
smoothing out the
transitions between
inhalations and exhalations.

Pons
2 Nerve impulses trigger
muscle contraction. Nerves
from a breathing control center
in the medulla oblongata of the
brain send impulses to the
diaphragm and rib muscles,
stimulating them to contract
and causing inhalation.

Breathing
control
centers

Medulla
oblongata

4 The medullas control center

also helps regulate blood CO2 level.
Sensors in the medulla detect
changes
in the pH (reflecting CO2
concentration)
of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid
changes in
5 Nerve
bathing
theimpulses
surface ofrelay
the brain.
CO2 and O2 concentrations. Other
sensors in the walls of the aorta
and carotid arteries in the neck
detect changes in blood pH and
send nerve impulses to the medulla.
In response, the medullas breathing
control center alters the rate and
depth of breathing, increasing both
to dispose of excess CO2 or decreasing
both if CO2 levels are depressed.

Carotid
arteries

Figure 42.26

3 In a person at rest, these

nerve impulses result in
about 10 to 14 inhalations
per minute. Between
inhalations, the muscles
relax and the person exhales.

Aorta

Diaphragm
Rib muscles

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6 The sensors in the aorta and

carotid arteries also detect changes
in O2 levels in the blood and signal
the medulla to increase the breathing
rate when levels become very low.

Controls over Respiration

The Central Nervous System monitors/controls
the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
Sensory neurons in the lining of blood vessels
monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
Center for breathing is in the medulla oblongata
(brain stem); strong-willed children who hold
their breath will pass out and start breathing
again (autonomic nervous system)

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