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Objectives
This chapter covers:
This Lecture covers
Day-to-day Applications
Understand how computers evolved during four
generations of computers
Some Day-to-Day
Applications
Looking up information and news
Exchange e-mail
Shopping and paying bills
Booking Tickets
Downloading music and movies
Organizing photographs
Playing games
Browsing Information
Computer has become central part of information &
entertainment
Computers in Education
Schools use computer as overall student-based
learning tool
Universities have integrated Classrooms,
computer labs, libraries, Wireless access and
online assignments
Teachers: Prepare course outline, exams, class
presentations
Distance learning
Students participate from locations other than
traditional classroom setting using computers
& Internet access
Computers in Education
Computers on the Go
Computers are encountered in nearly every
aspect of daily life
First-Generation Computers
(1943-1957)
Used only by
professionals
Affordable by big
organizations
Enormous and
Powered by
vacuum tubes
Non-portable
Relied on
Machine
language to
perform
operations
Used lot of
electricity,
generated a lot
of heat; often led
to malfunction
ENIAC, EDVAC
and UNIVAC IBM
701 IBM 650
First-Generation Computers
Thousands
of Resistors,
capacitors,
inductors
Relays 1500
Consumed
200 Kw of
power
Vacuum tubes
18000
ENIAC
Not a stored-program computer
Used 17,468 vacuum tubes and separate memory blocks for
program and data.
Did addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square
root
I/P was based on punched cards and o/p was on printouts
Used the decimal number system for representing and
processing values.
Became obsolete soon because of need for faster computing
speeds
14
ENIAC
15
16
17
ENIAC
Prob: A mechanical
device does addition
in 20 s. An valve
circuit adds it in 2
ms, what is the
improvement in
processing speed?
Soln:10000 times
18
Limitations
Functioning of these computers
depended on the machine language.
Therefore, computers were not easy to
program.
Designed as special-purpose
computers.
Non-portable
Large in size
Single tasking
Generated huge amount of heat
19
Second-Generation
Computers
(1958-1963) Transistors
Medium sized
corporations
started using it
Produced heat.
Needed AC
Batch Processing
and
Multiprogramming,
PDP 8, IBM 1401,
IBM 7090
Transistors replaced
vacuum tubes
Assembly language
was introduced
Relied on Punch
cards for i/ps &
printouts for o/ps
Computers were
more compact in
size, more
powerful, cheaper,
more efficient and
more reliable
First computers
that stored
instructions in
memory, which
moved from
magnetic drum to
magnetic core
Addition,
subtraction,
multiplication,
division on fixed
and floating point
numbers
Examples
Prob: Assume a vacuum tube valve operated at
150v, 5 mA and a transistor operated at 6v, 1 mA.
What is the reduction in power dissipation?
Soln: 7500 mW/6mW=1250 times
Prob: Assume a vacuum valve needed 4 cm height
and 1.5 sq cm base area. A transistor needs 0.4 cm
& 0.09 sq cm base area. What is the reduction in
space requirement?
Soln: 6cm3 /36mm 3=167 times
21
Examples
Prob: Assume a vacuum tube switched
current from state 0 to 1 in 10 microsec and
a transistor in 1 microsec. What is the
enhancement in processing speed?
Soln: speed of processing is increased by a
factor of 10/1 = 10 times
22
Second-Generation
Computers
Limitations
Input and Output media were not
improved to a considerable extent.
They were required to be placed in
AC places.
Cost was very high.
Could execute only specific
applications.
24
Third-Generation Computers
(1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
Minicomputers
appeared &
became more
accessible
Use by small
companies
Use of IC made
computers smaller in
size, reliable, efficient
and drastically
increased the speed
Instead of
punched cards
and printouts;
Keyboards and
monitors
introduced
Time Sharing,
Real-time and
Multiprogrammin
g Operating
Systems were
High-level language
(Fortran-II-IV, Cobol,
Pascal PL/1, Basic,
Algol etc.)
Third-Generation Computers
Examples
Prob: Assume a transistor needs 0.4 x 0.3 cm2 base
area and IC has 1000 transistors and the IC also
uses the same 0.4 x 0.3 cm2 silicon area? What is
the reduction in space requirement?
Soln: by a factor of 1000
Prob: Assume a VLSI needs 0.04 x 0.03 cm2 silicon
area for 1000 transistors? What is the reduction in
space requirement as compared to second
generation computers?
Soln: by a factor of (0.4/0.04)x(0.3/0.03) x
1000=100000 times = 0.1 million
28
Examples
Prob: Assume a main memory unit needs 4
transistors per bit and memory LSI IC stores 1024
bits. How many LSI are needed for 16 KByte
memory
Soln: 16 KByte memory: 16x1024x8 bits
No of Memory LSI=16x1024x8/1024=128
128 LSI Chips are used to store 16KByte memory
Total no of transistors: 16x1024x8x4=512k
Concept: More memory came in fewer ICs
29
Limitations
Storage capacity was small.
While executing large applications,
performance of computers degraded.
High cost
Required AC places
30
Fourth-Generation Computers
(1971-present) Microprocessors
Microprocessors
appeared
keyboards,
mouse,
monitors, &
printers
Examples
Data:
In 1992: one transistor area: 0.4mx0.4m
So a 1cm2 silicon chip has 625 Million per /cm 2 no of
transistors
Let an LSI IC have 1000 transistors in 0.4cmx0.4cm
silicon area
Let a VLSI IC have 1 Million transistors in
0.01cmx0.01cm area
Reduction in silicon space requirement by a factor
of
(100,0000/1000)x40x40=1600,000 times over third
33
generation IC
Examples
Prob:
In 2002: one transistor area: 0.13mx0.13m
Find transistor density per /cm 2
Soln: Silicon area: 0.13mx0.13m =1.69x 10
cm
-10
Prob: Assume a memory LSI IC stores 1024 bits and VLSI IC stores 16 M bits
(1992). How many LSI and VLSI are needed for 16 MByte memory.
34
No of LSI:128
Example
Prob: If the performance of the best
available computer on Jan 1 2001 is defined
to be 1, what would be the expected
performance on Jan 1 2014
Soln: Performance improvement is 50% per
year
After 13 years performance= 1x (1.5) 13
= 194.6 times
36
Fourth-Generation
Computers
Limitations
Soldering LSI and VLSI chips on
wiring board was difficult.
Highly skilled staff was required for
manufacturing.
38
Programming computers to
play games such as chess
43
44
Memory
Control Unit
ALU
Input / Output System
Control Unit
Input-Output
Registers
ALU
Store data and program
Execute program
Temporary Storage Unit
45
Do arithmetic/logic operations
requested by program
Communicate
with
"outside world",
e.g.
Screen
Keyboard
Storage
devices
47
48
Input /Output
Handles devices that allow the computer
system to:
Communicate and interact with the
outside world
Screen, keyboard, printer, ...
Store information (mass-storage)
Hard-drives, floppies, CD, tapes,
49
Limitation of Von-Neumann
Model
Stored-program Computer in which
an instruction fetch and a data
operation cannot occur at the same
time because they share a
commonbus.
This is referred to as the
Von Neumann bottleneckand often
limits the performance of the system.
50
Embedded Computers
Embedded into a product
Designed to perform specific functions for
that product
Cannot be used as general-purpose
computers
Often embedded into:
Household appliances
Thermostats
Audio/Video equipment
Cars
Mobile devices
Deskto
p PCs
Portabl
e
Midrange Server
Midrange server: A medium-sized
computer used to host programs & data
for a small network
Users connect via a network with a
computer or thin client
May consist of collection of individual
circuit boards called blades (blade
servers)
Mainframe Computers
Are powerful computers to manage large
amounts of centralized data
Located in data centers & connected to
rest of the computers via a network
Larger, more expensive, more powerful
than midrange servers
Usually operate 24 hours a day
Also called high-end servers or enterpriseclass servers
Supercomputers
Fastest, most expensive, most powerful type of
computers
Commonly built by connecting hundreds of
smaller computers, supercomputing cluster
Used for
space exploration
missile guidance
weather forecast
oil exploration
scientific research
decision support systems,
3D applications
Event
1969
1971
1972
1973
ARPAnet Users 35
1975
1976
1978
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1989
1990
1993
1994
1995
Windows 95 released
1996
Hotmail introduced
Event
2000
2001
2003
AMD released 64-bit Opteron Server microprocessor and 64bit Athlon for desktop PC; iTunes, Safari LinkedIn, Skype
launched
2005
2006
Twitter launched
2007
Windows Vista; Office 2000, Quad Core CPU by both Intel and
AMD; apple launces iPhone
2008
2001
2011