Distillation

Boiling Point - Composition

Curve for Cyclohexane-Toluene
mixture

VLE An Azeotrope
EA and Eth form an Azeotrope at
55% EA
An azeotrope is formed when
the
liquid
and
vapour
compositions are the same

Ethyl acetate Ethanol VLE

1.0
0.9

Separation by conventional
distillation is not possible

0.8

Ya (EA vapour)

0.7

Dewpoint and bubble point

are
the
same
at
the
azeotrope

0.6
0.5
0.4

Usually occurs at a particular

mole fraction. Outside this
point separation is possible

0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Xa (EA liquid)

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Can have
maximum
azeotrope

a minimum or
boiling
point

Can limit the separation and

purity of the product
Changing the pressure can be
the solution Extractive

Min BP Azeotrope EA Ethanol

Ethyl acetate Ethanol VLE

Bubble

Ethyl acetate Ethanol VLE (T-x-y)

1.0

80

0.9

79

0.8

78

0.7

77

0.6

76
Temp C

Ya (EA vapour)

Dew

0.5
0.4

75
74

0.3

73

0.2

72

0.1

71

0.0

70
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Xa (EA liquid)

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Xa, Ya (EA)

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Max BP Azeotrope - Water

Formic Acid
Water Formic Acid VLE

Bubble

Water Formic Acid VLE (T-x-y)

Dew
1.0
0.9

109
108

0.7

107

0.6

106

0.5

105
Temp C

Ya (H2O vapour)

0.8

0.4
0.3

104
103
102

0.2
101
0.1

100

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Xa (H2O liquid)

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

99
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Xa, Ya (H2O)

Other azeotropic mixtures include [water - nitric acid] [water hydrochloric acid] and many [water alcohols]

1.0

If equilibrium data are not available Partial Pressure, Dalton and Raoult

Daltons Law
Pa = yaP
Pa is the partial pressure, ya is the vapour mole fraction and P is the total
pressure
Raoults law applies to an ideal mixture
Pa = Poaxa

Poa is the vapour pressure, xa is the liquid mole fraction

We
assume
we law
are and
dealing
with ideal
From
Raoults
Daltons
law,mixtures.
we have:

Combining Dalton and

Raoult

PT Pbo
xa o
Pa Pbo

Pao x a
ya
PT

Therefore, if we know the vapour pressure we can calculate the mole

fractions of the liquid and vapour phases
You can then plot an x-y diagram or a T-x-y diagram. Remember, this is
for constant pressure only.

Methano
l

Water
Temperatu
Vapor
re
pressure
(C)
(mmHg)
0

4.5

6.8

10

9.0

20

17.3

30

31.5

40

55.5

50

92.3

60

149.3

70

234.0

80

354.9

90

525.8

100

760.0

2. From Relative Volatility

This is another way to get mole fractions. We can determine the
relative volatility from the Vapour Pressures. Use the definition of
relative volatility and Raoults law to get the following:

a ,b

Pao
o
Pb

is a function of VP which is a function of T. (If you need just one

then take the average of at the two b.p.s).
Next, include Daltons law to get an expression for mole fractions:

xa
ya
1 x a 1

Activity Eth H2O

Ethanol and Water are separated by distillation. The T-x-y data
are given as follows. Perry is a source for data (limited)

105

0.000
0.389
0.470
0.545
0.583
0.656
0.684

100
95
Temp C

Ethanol Water
Temp
Xa
Ya
100.0
0.000
89.0
0.072
85.3
0.124
82.7
0.234
81.5
0.327
79.8
0.508
79.3
0.573

90
85

80
75
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Xa, Ya (Eth)

Fermentation gives an ethanol conc of about 15%. What

happens when the mixture is boiled? What is the highest conc of
eth that can be achieved in this way?

SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Total mole present when time t= o;
L

Lx y * dL ( L dL) ( x dx )
Lx y * dL Lx Ldx xdL dxdL
dL ( y * x ) Ldx
dL
dx

*
L
( y x)
x xf

L F

x xW

L W

FLASH DISTILLATION

Steam Distillation

Steam Distillation :
Possible to distill an organic compound at much lower temp.
At constant system pr.PT ,steam lowers the partial & vapor pressure
of organic compound & its corresponding boiling pt.
Due to immiscibility of water ,it can be separated from product by
simple condensation & followed by decanting.
Application : Purification of heat sensitive material as an alternative
to

Azeotropic & Extractive Distillation.

Very close boiling mix can be separated economically by this technique.
Solvent when added will increase the difference between volatilities of
light & heavy component. The attraction of solvent to one of the
component reduces the volatility of solvent & the component to whichit
is attracted.

Solvent for Distillation should be

Non-corrosive.
Should not react with feed to form undesirable product.
Non-toxic.
Azeotropic solvent should have volatility near the major
component
desired in overhead product & in Extractive distillation its
volatility
should be lower than major component to be withdrawn at
bottom.
Extractive Distillation :
An agent modifies the relative volatility between key
component
Without forming an azeotrope. The agent is nonvolatile &
called Solvent.
Extractive Distilation is simpler process than Azeotropic
Distillation

Overhead
vapor
Total
condenser

Top
of column

Top stage
Distillate
Rectifying section
(Enriching section)

Feed
Feed stage

Stripping section
(Exhausting section)

Bottom stage

Boilup

Partial reboiler
Bottom
of column

Bottom
product

Applications:

Equipment:

the most widely used large-scale method for separating homogeneous fluid mixtures
in the chemical and petrochemical industry

if no azeotropes are encountered, overhead and bottom products may be obtained in

any desired purity

suitable for the separation of liquid mixtures of components having similar boiling
points into their individual components (at low relative volatility, but >1,05)

Tray Columns (stagewise contact

between the phases on individual
trays)

Packed Columns (continuous contact between the phases on the surface of a packing material)

Types of Binary Distillation Calculation

Energy requirements and heat exchanger design for a given adiabatic separation process (calculate the
heat duties of the condenser and reboiler, specify the heating steam consumption and coolant
requirements, thermal-hydraulic design of the condenser and reboiler)

Determination of main dimensions of the distillation column: estimating the number of equilibrium
stages required for a given separation, the column height and the column diameter for a desired
pressure drop (H = f(N), D)

Historical Review of Calculation Methods

until 1970s:

simplified, partially graphical design procedures for tray columns separating binary
mixtures: Ponchon-Savarit (1921/22), McCabe-Thiele (1925)
approximate calculation methods for the solution of multicomponent, multistage separation problems (Shortcut methods): Fenske (1932), Gilliland (1940), Underwood (1946)
design of packed columns based on NTU/HTU concepts: Chilton, Colburn (1935)

in the present:

complex mathematical matrix methods allow to find exact solutions of nonlinear equation
systems: Wang-Henke (1966), Naphtali-Sandholm (1971)
commercial process simulation software allowing design and rating calculations of tray and
packed columns operating at steady or unsteady state conditions (ASPEN , CHEMCAD )

Fundamentals of Binary Distillation

Assumptions for an Approximate Calculation of the Binary
Distillation

Assumptions and Simplifications:

1)

The two components have equal and constant molar enthalpies of vaporization (latent heats).

2)

The component heat capacity changes and the heat of mixing are negligible compared to the heat of
vaporization (considering ideal behaviour of binary mixtures).

3)

The distillation column, the condenser and the reboiler are well insulated so that heat losses to environment
are negligible.

4)

The pressure is constant throughout the column, no pressure drop occurs.

The above assumptions lead to the concept of constant molar overflow. This approach assumes that the
amount of molecules which evaporate and which condensate in each stage are the same or nearly the same.
That means, that all liquid and vapor molar flow rates in the rectifying section are constant and that all liquid and
vapor molar flow rates in the stripping section are constant but not the same as those in the rectifying section.
Further requirements are:
5)

Kinetic and potential energies are negligible.

6)

The distillation column is operated at continuous steady state conditions.

7)

The streams leaving each stage are assumed to be in vapor-liquid equilibrium. The liquids and vapors are
always at their bubble points and dew points, respectively.

Basic Operation and Terminology

The vapour moves up the column, and as it
exits the top of the unit, it is cooled by a
condenser. The condensed liquid is stored in a
holding vessel known as the reflux drum.
Some of this liquid is recycled back to the top
of the column and this is called the reflux. The
condensed liquid that is removed from the
system is known as the distillate or top
product.

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate

vapour. The source of heat input can be any
suitable fluid, although in most chemical
plants this is normally steam. In refineries, the
heating source may be the output streams of
other columns. The vapour raised in the
reboiler is re-introduced into the unit at the
bottom of the column. The liquid removed from
the reboiler is known as the bottoms product
or simply, bottoms.

McCabe-Thiele Method for Trayed Towers

The mathematical-graphical McCabe-Thiele Method can be used to determine the number of ideal stages N needed for a given
separation of a binary mixture (to produce a distillate and a bottom product ) and column operating pressure. The method
uses material balances around certain parts of the column and the equilibrium curve.
Rectifying section including the total condenser:

V = L + D, L = V D, D = V - L

F, x F

D, xD

Overall material balance

Vn 1 Ln D

n th plate

Vn1

Ln

yn1

xn

Component balance A
Vn1 y n 1 Ln x n Dx D
y n 1

Ln
Dx D
xn
Vn 1
Vn1

y n 1

Ln
Dx D
xn
;
Ln D
Ln D

R
x
x D
Rn 1
R 1

Stripping section including the partial reboiler:

Vm1

Lm 1

y m 1

xm 1

m th plate

Overall material balance

Lm Vm 1 W

Component balance A
Lm xm Vm 1 y m 1 WxW
y m1

Lm
WxW
xn
Vm 1
Vm 1

y n 1

Lm
WxW
xn
Lm W
Lm W

W , xW
y

Lm
WxW
x
Lm W
Lm W

L
D

The quantities of the liquid and the vapor streams change abruptly at the feed tray f since the feed may consist of
liquid, vapor, or a mixture of both. The feed-stage condition influences the change in slope of the operating lines:
a) Feed is a saturated liquid

b) Feed is a saturated vapor

L V
F, x F

f+1

F, x F
SS

L' L qF
L L qF

......2

'

V V (1 q ) F
'

f-1

substracting 6 8
.....3

y V V ' x L L' DxD WxW

Sub V V & L L values in 9

Over material balance lower sec tion

.....7

V ' y L' x WxW

f-1

V V ' (1 q ) F ......4
Over material balance up sec tion
V L D
......5
Component A balance
Vy Lx DxD
.....6
V ' L W

f+1

RS
f

L V
.....1

.....8

y (1 q ) F x qF ' FxF
y

q
x
x F
1 q
1 q

.....10

.....9

Possible feed-stage conditions:

a)
b)

Saturated liquid

h%
F
h%

h%

h%

q 1

Saturated vapor

h%
F
h%

h%

h%

q 1

c)

Subcooled liquid

d)

Superheated vapor

e)

Partially vaporized (liquid + vapor)

q0
q0

L&
L&

L& F&
L&

V& V&
V& V& F&

L&
L&

L& F&
L&

V& V&
V& V& F&

%
h%
0 q 1 L& L& L& F& V& V& V& F&
h%
F h

Slope

q>1

q
1 q

0<q<1

q=1

q=0

~
y

Eq. (8)

q<0

For cold liquid

Energy to convert 1 mole of feed to saturated vapour

Molal latent heat of vapourization

C (T T f )
p b

~
x

~
zF

~
zF
q

Effect of thermal condition of feed

In 1925, McCabe and Thiele published an approximate graphical method for combining the equilibrium curve for a binary system with operating lines to estimate the number of equilibrium stages required for a desired degree of separation of the feed.
1

1) Draw the equilibrium curve

p=const.

2) Draw the rectifying section operating line

a) Locate the distillate product composition

R from the
x D selected reflux ratio
b) Determine the slope
y

Rn 1

R 1

y%
x% 0

%
x
D
r 1

3) Draw the q-line :

a) Locate the feed composition on
the diagonal
z%
F
q
tan
b) Determine the parameter q q 1

%
x
B

z%
F

%
% 1
x
D xN 1

6) Step off the theoretical stages, changing operating

lines at the feed stage

c) Calculate the slope

4) Determine the point of intersection S of the rectifying

section operating line and the q-line
%
x
B
5) Draw the stripping section operating line
a) Locate the bottoms product composition
diagonal

on the

The staircase can be stepped of from the top to the

bottom, starting from the point
on the diagonal.
Alternatively, the stages can be stepped of from the
bottom (from the partial reboiler) at the point
to the top.

For a given specification, the reflux ratio can be selected anywhere from the minimum to an infinite value. As a
result, there are two important limiting conditions that need to be considered for distillation:
a) Minimum Number of Equilibrium Stages Nmin at Total Reflux
The entire overhead vapor is condensed and returned to the top stage as reflux. Furthermore, all liquid leaving
the bottom stage is vaporized and returned as boilup to the column. Thus, no products are withdrawn from the
& &
column (D B 0) and there is no feed:

y%

r, s
Nmin
0 x%
B

x%

1
x%
D

The infinite reflux ratio corresponds to the minimum number of equilibrium stages required for the
separation, thus to minimum capital costs, at infinite operating costs (heat for the reboiler,
condenser coolant, power for the reflux pump).

| Prof. Dr. M. Reppich | Conceptual Design of Distillation, Absorption and Stripping Systems | 36 |

b) Minimum Reflux Ratio rmin

As the reflux ratio decreases from the limiting case of total reflux, the intersection of the two operating lines and
the q-line moves from the diagonal toward the equilibrium curve. The number of equilibrium stages required
increases because the operation lines move closer and closer to the equilibrium curve, thus requiring more and
more stairs to move from the top of the column to the bottom. Finally, a limiting condition is reached when the
point of intersection S is on the equilibrium curve and therefore an infinite number of stages is required.

y%
y%
0 min
The minimum reflux ratio rmin can be determined graphically
from the ordinate intercept of the rectifying operating line
or by the Underwood equation (that can be applied to saturatedliquid feed, q = 1):

y%
0 min

Pinch
Point

x%
D
rmin 1
N
rmin
0 x%
B

z%
F

x%

1
x%
D

The minimum reflux ratio corresponds to the need for an infinite number of stages at a minimum
boilup ratio, thus at minimum operating costs necessary for the separation.

| Prof. Dr. M. Reppich | Conceptual Design of Distillation, Absorption and Stripping Systems | 37 |

An distillation column must be operated between the two

limiting conditions of minimum reflux rmin and total reflux,
with the corresponding number of equilibrium stages required varying from infinity to the minimum number Nmin.

C
[/a]

The reflux ratio to be used for a new design should be the

optimum, the one for which the total annual cost Ctot of the
distillation, which is the sum of the installed capital and
operating costs, will be the least.

Ctot (r)

Cop (r)

The reflux ratio influences both the number of stages

required (and thus the installed capital cost Ccap 1/r) and
the energy requirements (and thus the operating costs
Cop r).

Ccap (r)

The total cost must pass through a minimum at the

optimum reflux ratio, that frequently occurs in the range of
r

1,05 rmin < ropt < 1,5 rmin

at high energy costs

rmin

ropt

at high costs of
construction materials

A first estimate of the optimum reflux ratio can be obtained

from ropt = 1,2 rmin.

Ccap total installed annual capital cost

Cop annual operating and maintenance cost
(heating and cooling costs)
total annual cost
C
tot

 For a non-ideal system, where the molar

latent heat is no longer constant and where
there is a substantial heat of mixing, the
calculations become much more tedious.
For binary mixtures of this kind a graphical
model has been developed by RUHEMANN,
PONCHON, and SAVARIT, based on the use of
an enthalpy-composition chart.
It is necessary to construct an enthalpycomposition diagram for particular binary
system over a temperature range covering
the two-phase vapor-liquid region at the
pressure of the distillation.

The following data are needed:

1. Heat capacity as a function of
temperature, composition and pressure.
2. Heat of mixing and dilution as a function of
temperature and composition.
3. Latent heats of vaporization as a function
of composition and pressure or
temperature.
4. Bubble-point temperature as a function of
composition and pressure.

Enthalpy of liquid:
n

hm hi
i

In regular / ideal mixtures:

hi xi hio
For gaseous / vapor mixtures at
normal T and P:
n

Hm hi yi i

hmix xA hA xBhB Hsol

(3)

hmix xA CP,A T Tref xB CP,B T Tref Hsol

Enthalpy-composition diagram

(4)

Hmix hmix mix

(5)

mix xA A xB B

(6)

The enthalpy-concentration diagram may be used to evaluate graphically the

enthalpy and composition of streams added or separated.

Over-all material balance:

F=V+L
Component material balance

F xF = V y + L x

(7)
(8)

Enthalpy balance:
F hF = V H + L h

(9)

For adiabatic process, q = 0:

Substituting eq. (7) to (9) gives:
V L hF VH Lh

Steady-state flow
system with phase
separation and heat
added

V (H hF) = L (hF h)
L H hF

V hF h

Substituting eq. (7) to (8) gives:

V (y xF) = L (xF x)
L
y xF

V
xF x

(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)

Comparing eq. (11) to (13) gives:

H hF
y xF

hF h
xF x

(14)

Eq. (14) can be rearranged:

H hF hF h

y xF xF x

(15)

___

H
F

hF
h

Theslope
oflineVFis:

Theslope
of lineFLis:

___

y
xF
Enthalpy-concentration lines
adiabatic, q = 0

H hF
y xF

hF h
xF x

According to eq. (15), the slopes of both

lines are the same.
Since both lines go through the same point
(F), the lines lie on the same straight line.

LEVER-ARM RULE PRINCIPLE

V

xF

L H hF

V hF h

hF

Consider triangle LBV

___

FV AV H hF L

___ ___
LF BA hF h V

___

___

V LF
Similarly: F ___
LV

___

L FV
___
V LF
___

L FV
___
F LV

Over-all material balance:

V1

qD

F=D+B

(16)

D, xD, HLD

L0
x0
HL0

Component material balance:

F x F = D xD + B x B

F
xF
HF

(17

F xF = D xD + (F D) xB (18
F xF xB
D
xD xB
qB

B, xB, HLEnthalpy
B

(19)

balance:

FhF qB DhD qD BhB

(20)

TOTAL CONDENSER
A

Material balance around condenser:

qD

V1 = L0 + D

(21)

Component material balance:

V1 y1 = L0 x0 + D x0 (22)
Enthalpy balance:

V1
L0

D
xD qD + V1 H1 = L0 h0 + D h(23)
D
Designating:

L1

QD

qD
D

V1 H1 = L0 h0 + D (hD QD)

(24)

Combining eqs. (21) and (24):

L0
h QD H1
D
D
H1 hD

(25)

Internal reflux is shown as:

L0 hD QD H1

V1 hD QD h0

(26)

Internal reflux between each plate,

Lm
h QD Hm1
until a point in the column is
D
Vm1
hD QD hm
reached where a stream is added
or removed, can be shown as:
(hD QD), xD

(27)

A
qD

H or h

hD QD H1

H1

L0

V1
H1 hD
Vm+1
L0, D
y1, x0, xD

h0, hD

Lm

D
xD

(HD QD), yD

HD QD H1
V1

H or h

HD, yD
H1 h0

h0, x0

y1, x0, yD

The material balance equation maybe

Enthalpy balanceof total condensor:
rearranged in the from of difference:
qD + V1 H1 = L0 h0 + D h(23)
D
L0 V1 = L1 V2 = L2 V3
= . . . . = Lm Vm+1

RECTIFYING SECTION
qD

V1
V2
V3

D
xD

L0
L1
L2

=D

L0 V1 = D =
(28)
For the component material balance:
L0 x0 V1 y1 = L1 x1 V2 y2
= L2 x2 V3 y3 = . . . .
= Lm xm Vm+1 ym+1
= D xD = x
L0 x0 V1 y1 = D xD = x
Combining eqs. (35) and (36):
xD = x

Vn+1

(29)

(30)

Ln

For the enthalpy balance:

L0 h0 V1 H1 = L1 h1 V2 H2 = L2 h2 V3 H3 = . . . .
=L h V
H
= D (h Q ) = h (31)

LF

Combining eqs. (23) and (31):

h = hD QD
(32)

m+1

m+1

These 3 independent equations [eqs. (28), (29), and (30)] can be written for
rectifying section of the column between each plate.

On the enthalpy scale and on the composition scale, the differences in

enthalpy and in composition always pass through the same point, ([xD, (hD
QD)]

This is designated as point , the difference point, and all lines corresponding
to the combined material and enthalpy balance equations (operating line
equations) for the rectifying section of the column pass through this
intersection.

PLATE-TO-PLATE GRAPHICAL PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING THE

NUMBER OF EQUILIBRIUM STAGES:
1. Use R, xD, HD or hD to establish the location of point with x = xD and
h = hD QD or h = HD QD
2. Use Equilibrium data alone to establish the point L1 at (x1, h1). Since
L1 is assumed to be a saturated liquid, x1 must lie on the saturatedliquid line.
3. Draw the operating line between L1 and . This line intersects the
saturated-vapor line at V2 (y2, H2).
(x, h)
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the feed plate is reached .

H or h

V4 V3 V2 V
1

L3

L2
x or y

L1

The material balance equation maybe rearranged in

the from of difference:
LM VM1 B LM1 VM

STRIPPING SECTION

LM2 LM1 ...

Lm Vm1

Lm

Vm1

(33)

For the component material balance:

LM xM VM1 yM1 BxB LM1 xM1 VM yM

LM 2 xM 2 VM1 yM1 ...

Lm xm Vm1 ym1 x

VM

LM1

VM1 LM

(34)

Combining eqs. (40) and (41):

x xB

(35)

For the enthalpy balance:

LM hM VM1 HM1 B hB QB LM1 hM1 VM HM

LM 2 hM 2 VM1 HM1 ...
Lmhm Vm 1 Hm 1 h

qB

B
xB

Combining eqs. (1) and (4):

h hB QB

(36)
(37)

These 3 independent equations [eqs. (33), (34), and (35)] can be written for
stripping section of the column between each plate.

On the enthalpy scale and on the composition scale, the differences in enthalpy
and in composition always pass through the
[xB, (hB QB)].
same point,

This is designated as
point , the difference point, and all lines corresponding
to the combined material and enthalpy balance equations (operating line
equations) for the stripping section of the column pass through this
QB intersection.
is usually not known. It can be derived from over-all material balance:
(38
F=D
)
+B
Combining eq. (38) with eqs. (28) and
(33) gives:
(39
F
)
Equation (39) impliesthat

lies on the extension of the straight line passing through F and .

PLATE-TO-PLATE GRAPHICAL PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING THE

NUMBER OF EQUILIBRIUM STAGES:
1. Draw a straight line passing through F and .
2. Draw a vertical straight line at xB all the way down until it intersects the
extension of line F in
3. Assuming the reboiler to be an equilibrium stage, the vapor V M+1 is in
equilibrium with the bottom stream.
4. Use equilibrium data alone to establish the value of y m+1 on the
saturated-vapor line.
5. Draw the operating line between Lm(xm, hm) and VM+1. This line intersects
the saturated-liquid line at
VM V
V
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the feed plate is reached.
M1

H or h

M 1

hB

LM

LM1

x or y

, xB

TOTAL COLUMN

V1

qD
D

L0

The construction may start

from either side of the
diagram, indicating either
the condition at the top or
the bottom of the column.
Proceed as explained in
previous slides.

qB
B

In either case, when an

equilibrium tie line crosses
the line connecting the
difference points through the
feed condition, the other
difference point is used to
complete the construction.


V1

H or h

H or h

L1

9 8 7 6

y1

xB

xF

xD

x1

EXAMPLE 3
Using the enthalpy-concentration diagram from Example 2, determine
the following for the conditions in Example 1, assuming a saturated
liquid feed.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The number of theoretical stages for an operating reflux ratio of R

= L0/D = 2.5
Minimum reflux ratio L0/D.
Minimum equilibrium stages at total reflux.
Condenser duty feeding 10,000 lb of feed/hr, Btu/hr.
Reboiler duty, Btu/hr.

SOLUTION
(a)

From the graph: hD = h0 = 5,117 cal/mole

H1 = 12,723 cal/mole

L0 hD QD H1

D
H1 hD
5,117 Q D 12,723
2 .5
12,723 5,117

QD = 26,621 cal/mole

The coordinate of point is:

x = xD = 0.97
h = hD QD = 5,117 ( 26,621) = 31,738 cal/mole
Draw a straight line passing through and F.
Extend the line until it intersects a vertical line passing through

xB, at
Draw operating lines and equilibrium lines in the whole column
using the method explained in the previous slides.
Number of stages = 11

 = 21,700 cal/mole

(b)

L 0 hD QD H1

D
H1 hD

L0

h H1
H1 hD

min

21,700 12,723

12,723 5,117
= 1.18

(c)
7

2 1

N=7

(d)

hD QD = h = 31,738 cal/mole
hD = 5,117 cal/mole
QD = 26,621 cal/mole

QD 26,621

cal 1.8 Btu lb mole

mole D 10,000 lb F hr

0.426
mole
cal mole
mole F 103 lb mole F

= 1,981,843 Btu/hr
(e)

hB QB = 14,350 cal/mole
hB = 5,886 cal/mole
QB = 14,350 + 5,886 = 20,236 cal/mole

cal 1.8 Btu lb mole

mole B 10,000 lb F hr

QD 26,236

0.574
mole
cal mole
mole F 103 lb mole F

= 2,631,751 cal/mole

FACTORS AFFECTING
DISTILLATION COLUMN
OPERATION
Vapour Flow Conditions
Adverse vapour flow conditions can cause
Foaming
Entrainment
Weeping/dumping
Flooding

Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapour
or gas. Although it provides high interfacial liquid-vapour contact,
excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on trays. In some cases,
foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray
above. Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on physical
properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to tray designs
and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is always
reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapour up to the tray
above and is again caused by high vapour flow rates. It is detrimental
because tray efficiency is reduced: lower volatile material is carried to a
plate holding liquid of higher volatility. It could also contaminate high
purity distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding.
Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapour flow. The pressure exerted by
the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore,
liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to
dumping. That is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column will have to be
re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column
and reduced separation efficiency.

Flooding
Flooding is brought about by excessive vapour flow, causing liquid to be
entrained in the vapour up the column. The increased pressure from
excessive vapour also backs up the liquid in the downcomer, causing an
increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. Depending on the degree of
flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may be severely reduced.
Flooding is detected by sharp increases in column differential pressure and
significant decrease in separation efficiency.
Column Diameter
Most of the above factors that affect column operation is due to vapour
flow conditions: either excessive or too low. Vapour flow velocity is dependent
on column diameter. Weeping determines the minimum vapour flow required
while flooding determines the maximum vapour flow allowed, hence column
capacity. Thus, if the column diameter is not sized properly, the column will
not perform well. Not only will operational problems occur, the desired
separation duties may not be achieved.
State of Trays and Packings
Remember that the actual number of trays required for a particular
separation duty is determined by the efficiency of the plate, and the packings if
packings are used. Thus, any factors that cause a decrease in tray efficiency will
also change the performance of the column. Tray efficiencies are affected by
fouling, wear and tear and corrosion, and the rates at which these occur
depends on the properties of the liquids being processed. Thus appropriate
materials should be specified for tray construction.

Weather Conditions
Most distillation columns are open to the atmosphere. Although many of the
columns are insulated, changing weather conditions can still affect column
operation. Thus the reboiler must be appropriately sized to ensure that enough
vapour can be generated during cold and windy spells and that it can be
turned down sufficiently during hot seasons. The same applies to condensors.