Statistical mechanics

Introduction to MB, BE, FD distributions

Application of probability theory (large
populations)
Thermodynamics as a natural result of
statistics and mechanics (classical and
quantum) at the microscopic level
What is most likely to happen (no actual
motions or interactions )
Overall behavior of system properties of
particles
Cannot reveal the history but can say for

Statistical distributions
To determine the most probable way in which a
given amount of energy E is distributed among N
members of the system of particles in thermal
equilibrium at absolute temperature T
PW
(no. of different
ways in which
particles can be
arranged)
Eg. Rolling two dices: Total 36 possibilities
To get 12: (6,6)
P (12) 1/ 36

To get 5: (1, 4), 2,3 , 3, 2 , 4,1

P(5) 4 / 36

General formula for W

Most

probable distribution is the one having maximum W

Number of particles of energy

n( ) g ( ) f ( )
g ( ) = number of states of energy
= statistical weigth corresponding to energy
f ( ) = distribution function
= average number of particles in each state of energy
= probability of occupancy of each state of energy
Three types of distribution functions exist
according to their properties of the particles

Applies to
systems of
Category
of particles

MaxwellBoltzmann

Bose-Einstein

Fermi-Dirac

Identical,
distinguishable
particles
Classical

Identical,
indistinguishable
particles that do not
Bosons
obey Pauli principle

Identical,
indistinguishable
particles that obey
Fermions
Pauli principle

Integral spin; wave

functions are
symmetric to
interchange of
particles
Photos in a cavity,

Half-integral spin;
wave functions are
antisymmetric to
interchange of
particles
Free electrons in a

phonons in a solid,
liquid He at low T

metal, nucleons in
nucleus

Properties
Any spin, particles
of particles are far enough
apart so wave
functions do not
overlap
Examples
Molecules of a gas

Distributio
n function
f ( )

1
A exp( / kT )

Properties
No limit to number
of
of particles per
distribution state

exp[( F ) / kT 1)]

exp[( F ) / kT ] 1)

No limit to number
of particles per
state; more
particles per state
than fMB at low
energies;

Never more than 1

particle per state;
fewer particles per
state than fMB at low
energies;
approaches fMB at

Fermi-Dirac distribution
f FD ( )

1
e( F )/ kT 1

To appreciate the significance of the Fermi energy, let us consider a system

of fermions at T = 0 and investigate the occupancy of states whose energies
are less than F and greater than F

T 0, < F ;
T 0, > F ;

1
1
f FD ( ) ( F )/ kT

e
1 e 1 0 1
1
1
1
f FD ( ) ( F )/ kT

e
1
e 1

1
0

LASER Basics
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation

Very nearly
monochromatic
Highly coherent
Does not diverge
Extremely intense

Stimulated emission: Einsteins

approach
Coefficient of proportionality
N atoms
j

N i j N i Bij u (v)

No of atoms that
absorb photons
Energy density

Stimulated
absoption

N j Aji

N j B ji u (v )

Spontaneous
emission

Stimulated
emission

Ni atoms

N j i N j [ Aji B ji u (v)]

At equilibrium, N i j N j i

N i Bij u (v) N j [ Aji B ji u (v)]

Dividing both sides by N j B ji

N i B ij

Aji

u (v)
u (v )
N j
B ji

B
ji

A ji / B ji
u (v )
N i B ij
1

N j B ji

and solving for u (v)

Einsteins approach (contd.)

atoms/molecules in a gas follow MB distribution
N i C exp( Ei / kT );

N j C exp( E j / kT )

Ni
exp[( Ei E j ) / kT ] exp[( E j Ei ) / kT ] exp(hv / kT )
Nj
u (v )

Aji / B ji
N i B ij
1

N j B ji

Aji / B ji
Bij
exp(hv / kT ) 1

B ji

8 h
v3 dv
Planck radiation law: u (v) dv 3
c exp(hv / kt ) 1
Consistency between above two expressions demand
Bij B ji

and

8 hv 3

B ji
c3
Aji

Einsteins coefficients
Bij B ji
Stimulated

and

8 hv 3

B ji
c3
Aji

emission does occur and its

probability is equal to the probability for
absorption
The ratio between two probabilities varies
with v3, so the relative likelihood of
spontaneous emission increases rapidly
with the energy difference between the
two states
All we need to know is one of the
probabilities Aij , Bij, Bji to find others

Metastable state
3

levels are required to achieve population inversion

1 Ordinary excited state

2 Metastable state
3 Stable (ground) state

An atom can exist in a metastable state for a

longer time before radiating than it can in an
ordinary energy level

Principle of 3-level laser

an half of atoms must be in the metastable state for stimulated emission to pred

Ruby laser (3-level)

an half of atoms must be in the metastable state for stimulated emission to pred

Four level laser

ontinuous operation is possible

Helium-Neon laser

Types of lasers
Gas

lasers

Dye

Chemical lasers lasers

Excimer lasersFree e-

Solid-state

lasers

Fiber-hosted lasers
Photonic crystal lasers
Semiconductor lasers

Developments in laser
power

CD/DVD R/W operation

Holography
Ordinary photograph: only intensity is recorded
2D
image
Hologram:
Images are formed by interference,
without lenses

Interference of two beams allows the film to record

both intensity and relative phase
Coherency is crucial

Holography (contd.)
After developing such a film and placing it in laser
light, we get a 3D image

Volume or white-light holograms are made on thick emulsion

They can be seen without laser light

Communication via light

Human eye

The rods and cones of

the eye pass optical
signals

Fiberscope

Endoscope

is a familiar example
State-of-art fiberscope has 10,000
fibers of bundle with 1mm dia
Capable of resolving objects 70m across

Total internal reflection

n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2

{Snell's law

For total internal reflection, 2 90, 1 C

n1 sin C n2

n2
sin C
n1

n2
C sin
n1
1

The optical fiber

Numerical aperture

n2
cos
n1

n2
For total internal reflection, sin cos
n1
n2
sin 1
n1

n2
sin 1
n1

For air-core interface, n0 sin i n1 sin

Numerical aperture

{n0 1

NA sin im n12 n22

n1 sin n12 n22

Some details

Number of Modes in a Fiber

D NA
N m 0.5

D core diameter
operating wavelength
NA numerical aperture

Types of fibers

Advantages of Fiber Optics

Less expensive- Several miles of optical cable can
be made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper
wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and
you money.
Thinner- Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller
diameters than copper wire.
Higher carrying capacity- Because optical fibers are
thinner than copper wires, more fibers can be bundled
into a given-diameter cable than copper wires. This
allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or
more channels to come through the cable into your
cable TV box.
Less signal degradation- The loss of signal in
optical fiber is less than in copper wire.
Light signals- Unlike electrical signals in copper

Advantages of Fiber Optics

(contd.)

Low power- Because signals in optical fibers degrade

less, lower-power transmitters can be used instead of
the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for
copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you
money.
Digital signals- Optical fibers are ideally suited for
carrying digital information, which is especially useful in
computer networks.
Non-flammable- Because no electricity is passed
through optical fibers, there is no fire hazard.
Lightweight- An optical cable weighs less than a
comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-optic cables take
up less space in the ground.
Flexible

Evolution of Transmission
Medium

Evolution of fiber links

Current status
State-of-the-art

numbers:

Experimental trial:
Simens demonstrated bi-directional 7 Tbps.
NEC demonstrated 6.4 Tbps (40 G over 160
s in 50-GHz spacing) over 186 km

Commercial systems can go up to 2Tbps

Single : Nortel demonstrated 80 G
transmission over 480 km
Several above-tera-bps links are being
installed worldwide
Future

trend: More than 100 s will

be used

References
A.

Beiser Concepts of Modern Physics, 6 Ed.,

Tata McGraw-Hill (New Delhi, 2003)
Ajoy Ghatak Optics, 4 Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill
(New Delhi, 2009)
www.wikipedia.org
D.C. Giancoli Physics Principles with
applications, 6 Ed., Pearson Printice Hall (New
Jersey, 2005)