Perception and attribution

BY
AKASH SAXENA
 Introduction
2

Individuals behave in a given manner based not on

the way their external environment actually is but,
rather, on what they see or believe it to be

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 The impact
3

An organization may spend millions of dollars to

create a pleasant work environment for its
employees.
However, in spite of these expenditures, if an
employee believes that his or her job is terrible, that
employee will behave accordingly.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 The impact
4

It is the employee’s perception of a situation that

becomes the basis for his or her behavior.
The employee who perceives his/her supervisor as a
hurdle reducer who helps him/her do a better job
and the employee who sees the same supervisor as
“big brother, closely monitoring every motion, to
ensure that I keep working” will differ in their
behavioral responses to their supervisor.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 The impact
5

The difference has nothing to do with the reality of the

supervisor’s actions; the difference in employee
behavior is due to different perceptions.
The evidence suggests that what individuals perceive
from their work situation will influence their
productivity more than will the situation itself.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 How to deal with faulty perception
6

The employee’s conclusion that a job is good or bad is

an interpretation.
Managers must spend time understanding how each
individual interprets reality and, where there is a
significant difference between what is seen and what
exists, try to eliminate the distortions.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contd..
7

Failure to deal with the differences when individuals

perceive the job in negative terms will result in
increased absenteeism and turnover and lower job
satisfaction.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Individual Decision Making
8

How it should be
Of course …..rational
But,…….how many times an individual makes a
rational decision, without putting individual biases.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 How better decisions can be made
9

Analyze the situation

Be aware of biases
Combine rational analysis with intuition
Do not assume that your specific decision making
style is appropriate for all type of situations
Try to enhance your creativity

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 An example
10

Bob Lutz was the president of Chrysler in the 1980 when

it was highly criticized as “brain dead,” “technologically
dated,” and for building cars that were “uninspiring.”
During a joy ride in his Ford-made Cobra Roadster he
had an idea, which lead to a decision that changed the
public’s perception of Chrysler forever. Use the new
ten-cylinder engine in development for a new Dodge
truck and put it into a sports car model. He met with
critics from within the company, but he was
unwavering in his resolve. The result was the Dodge
Viper. Making decisions is an important part of
everyday organizational life, and do not always
carefully follow a formulated process as we see in this
example from Mr. Lutz.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Perception - What is it
11

Perception is a cognitive process wherein an

individual collects, organizes, and interprets data
from the environment to obtain a meaning from it.
In fact, perception differs from person to person for
the same situation.
Each person interprets the data in their own way and
may come up with different meanings.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Look carefully
12

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 A story to narrate the concept
13

Cadbury-Schweppes is a leading confectionary and

beverage company in the world. The company’s social
responsibility goal is: “To be admired as a great company
to work for one that is socially responsible to its
communities and consumers across the globe.” In the
late 2003, the company was mired in a controversy in
India, when a shopkeeper who stocked the company’s
product ‘Dairy Milk’ found worms in the product. Later
in 2004, the company introduced improved ‘purity
sealed’ packaging for the product. In addition, the
company also roped in Amitabh Bacchan, a popular and
veteran movie star, to endorse ‘Dairy Milk.’
How do you perceive the actions taken by the
company in relation to the controversy?

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Sensation Vs Perception
14

Individuals use their sensory organs to sense – for

instance, eye to see, ears to hear, skin to feel,
nose to smell, and tongue to taste. Therefore,
sensation is the basic behaviour of individuals caused
by their psychological functions.
Perception on the other hand involves people’s
assimilation of raw data through their senses, after
which they organize and modify the data with the help
of cognitive thinking to form a coherent picture of the
situation.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Sub-Processes of Perception
15

A two-year-boy comes into contact with a hot object and

burns his fingers (Stimulus).
The little boy might record the fact that touching that
particular object caused him pain and anguish
(interpretation).
He might also record in his mind the object that caused
the pain (registration).
This experience makes him learn not to touch hot
objects in future (feedback).

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Process
16

* Collection of stimuli


Organisation of stimuli
Interpretation (perception)
Registration (Learning)
Feedback (behaviour modification)

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Factors that 17
Influence
Perception

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Perceiver
18

When an individual looks at a target and attempts to

interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is
heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the
individual perceiver.
The more relevant personal characteristics affecting
perception of the perceiver are attitudes, motives,
interests, past experiences, and expectations.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Target
19

Characteristics of the target can also affect what is

being perceived.
This would include attractiveness, gregariousness,
and our tendency to group similar things together.
For example, members of a group with clearly
distinguishable features or color are often perceived
as alike in other, unrelated characteristics as well. –
Like all Negros are alike


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Situation
20

The context in which we see objects or events also

influences our attention.
This could include time, heat, light, or other
situational factors.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Why is this important to the study of OB?
21

Because people’s behavior is based on their

perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Person Perception: Making Judgments
about Others
22

Attribution Theory
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Specific Applications in Organizations


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Person Perception: Making Judgments
About Others
23

Attribution
Theory
When individuals
observe behavior,
they attempt to
determine whether
it is internally or
externally caused.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Internally Vs Externally caused behaviour
24

Internally caused behaviour: Believed to be

under personal control of the individual
Externally caused behaviour: resulting from
outside causes
(Boss perceiving a late comer to office on the

basis of his late night partying is attribution to

internal factors, on the other hand if it is
perceived as it may be caused by traffic Jam it
will be attribution to external factors)

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Attribution theory
25

Our perceptions of people differ from our perceptions

of inanimate objects.
 We make inferences about the actions of people that we do not
make about inanimate objects.
 Nonliving objects are subject to the laws of nature.
 People have beliefs, motives, or intentions.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contd..
26

Our perception and judgment of a person’s actions are

influenced by these assumptions
Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an
individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine
whether it was internally or externally caused. That
determination depends largely on three factors:
 Distinctiveness
 Consensus
 Consistency


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 27

Distinctiveness
Shows different behaviors in different situations.
Consensus
Response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency
Responds in the same way over time.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contd..
28

Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual

displays different behaviors in different situations.
What we want to know is whether the observed
behavior is unusual.
 If it is, the observer is likely to give the behavior an external
attribution.
 If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as
internal.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contd..
29

Consensusoccurs if everyone who is faced with a

similar situation responds in the same way. If
consensus is high, you would be expected to give an
external attribution to the employee’s tardiness,
whereas if other employees who took the same route
made it to work on time, your conclusion as to
causation would be internal.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 30

Consistency in a person’s actions. Does the person

respond the same way over time? The more
consistent the behavior, the more the observer is
inclined to attribute it to internal causes.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 31

Attribution Theory
By Akash Saxena 04/20/10
 Errors and Biases in Attributions
32
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate the
influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior of
others

In general, we tend
to blame the
person first, not
the situation.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contd..
33

Fundamental Attribution Error

 There is substantial evidence that we have a tendency to
underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.
 There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors such as ability or effort while
putting the blame for failure on external factors such as
luck. This is called the “self-serving bias” and suggests that
feedback provided to employees will be distorted by
recipients.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
34
Self-Serving
get an “A” Bias
on an exam, they often say they studied hard. But when th
Thean
ually when tendency
exam isfor individuals to
“tough”?
attribute their own successes to
internal factors while putting the
blame for failures on external
factors

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging
Others
35

Selective Perception
Halo Effect
Contrast Effects
Projection
Stereotyping


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
36

Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis
of their interests, background, experience, and
attitudes.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Examples
37

 Dearborn and Simon performed a perceptual study in which 23

business executives read a comprehensive case describing the
organization and activities of a steel company.
 The results along with other results of the study, led the
researchers to conclude that the participants perceived
aspects of a situation that were specifically related to the
activities and goals of the unit to which they were attached.
 A group’s perception of organizational activities is selectively
altered to align with the vested interests they represent.
 Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging other people by
allowing us to “speed-read” others, but not without the risk of
drawing an inaccurate picture. Because we see what we want
to see, we can draw unwarranted conclusions from an
ambiguous situation.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
38
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the basis
of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are
affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or lower on
the same characteristics

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Halo Effect
39
 The halo effect occurs when we draw a general impression on
the basis of a single characteristic:
This phenomenon frequently occurs when students
appraise their classroom instructor.
Students may give prominence to a single trait such as
enthusiasm and allow their entire evaluation to be
tainted by how they judge the instructor on that one
trait.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Activity
40

Siddhant, a middle-level manager in the quality

department of Cidar Foods Ltd. was given the task of
promoting an employee as assistant manager in his
department. Siddhant decided to promote Raj to the
post. His decision was based upon the fact that Raj
had recently completed a course in Hotel management
from a prestigious university. Was siddhant right in
his decision?
Do you think he was subject to the Halo effect while
taking the decision.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Contrast Effects
41

q We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to

one person is influenced by other persons we have recently
encountered.
q For example, an interview situation in which one sees a
pool of job applicants can distort perception. Distortions in
any given candidate’s evaluation can occur as a result of his
or her place in the interview schedule.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
42

Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other
people

Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis
of one’s perception of the
group to which that person
belongs

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Projection
43

 This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other

people—which is called projection—can distort perceptions
made about others.
 When managers engage in projection, they compromise their
ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see
people as more homogeneous than they really are.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Stereotyping
44

 Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our perception

of the group to which he or she belongs
 Generalization is not without advantages. It is a means of
simplifying a complex world, and it permits us to maintain
consistency. The problem, of course, is when we
inaccurately stereotype.
 In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent
stereotypes based on gender, age, race, ethnicity, and even
weight.
 From a perceptual standpoint, if people expect to see these
stereotypes, that is what they will perceive, whether or not
they are accurate.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Activity
45

The term “glass ceiling” was coined by Carol Hymowitz

and Timothi Schellhardt in 1986. Glass ceiling is a
phenomenon where employees are unjustly prevented
from attaining prominent and high positions in the
organisations. Often, it is women and minorities that
are subject to the glass ceiling in organisations. Glass
ceiling is also referred to as the invisible and unofficial
barrier in the career ladder of those individuals who
are subject to such injustice.
Can we attribute steriotyping as one of the possible
reasons for the glass ceiling? comment

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Specific Applications in Organizations
46

Employment Interview
Performance Expectations
Performance Evaluation
Employee Effort


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Employment Interview
47
 Evidence indicates that interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often
inaccurate.
 In addition, agreement among interviewers is
often poor. Different interviewers see
different things in the same candidate and
thus arrive at different conclusions about
the applicant.
 Interviewers generally draw early impressions
that become very quickly entrenched.
Studies indicate that most interviewers’
decisions change very little after the first
four or five minutes of the interview.
 Because interviews usually have so little
consistent structure and interviewers vary
in terms of what they are looking for in a
candidate, judgments of the same candidate
can vary widely.
By Akash Saxena
04/20/10
 Performance expectations
48
 Evidence demonstrates that people will
attempt to validate their perceptions of
reality, even when those perceptions are
faulty.
 Self-fulfilling prediction or Pygmalion effect
characterizes the fact that people’s
expectations determine their behavior.
Expectations become reality.
 A study was undertaken with 105 soldiers in
the Israeli Defense Forces who were taking a
fifteen-week combat command course.
Soldiers were randomly divided and
identified as having high potential, normal
potential, and potential not known.
Instructors got better results from the high
potential group because they expected it
confirming the effect of a self-fulfilling
prophecy.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10
 Performance evaluation
49

 An employee’s performance appraisal is very

much dependent on the perceptual process.
 Although the appraisal can be objective, many
jobs are evaluated in subjective terms.
Subjective measures are, by definition,
judgmental.
 To the degree that managers use subjective
measures in appraising employees, what
the evaluator perceives to be good or bad
employee characteristics or behaviors will
significantly influence the outcome of the
appraisal.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Employee effort
50

 An individual’s future in an organization is usually not

dependent on performance alone. An assessment of an
individual’s effort is a subjective judgment susceptible to
perceptual distortions and bias.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 51

Questions for review

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Q.1. Define perception
52

Answer: Perception is a process by which

individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment. What one
perceives can be substantially different from
objective reality. Perception is important in
the study of OB because people’s behavior is
based on their perception of what reality is,
not on reality itself.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 What is attribution theory? What are its
implications for explaining organizational
behavior?
53

Answer – Attribution theory suggests that when we

observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to
determine whether it was internally or externally
caused. That determination depends largely on
three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and
consistency.


By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 How are our perceptions of our own actions different from
our perceptions of the actions of others?
54

Answer – One of the more interesting findings from

attribution theory is that there are errors or biases that
distort attributions. There is substantial evidence that
we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors. This is the fundamental
attribution error. There is also a tendency for individuals
to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such
as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on
external factors such as luck. This is the self-serving bias
and suggests that feedback provided to employees will
be distorted by recipients.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 How does selectivity affect perception? Give an example of
how selectivity can create perceptual distortion.
55

Answer – Selective perception—Any characteristic

that makes a person, object, or event stand out will
increase the probability that it will be perceived. It is
impossible for us to assimilate everything we see—
only certain stimuli can be taken in. Selectivity
works as a shortcut in judging other people by
allowing us to “speed-read” others, but not without
the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. Because
we see what we want to see, we can draw
unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous
situation.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 What is stereotyping? Give an example of how
stereotyping can create perceptual distortion.
56

Answer – Stereotyping—judging someone on the

basis of our perception of the group to which he or
she belongs. Generalization is not without
advantages. It is a means of simplifying a complex
world, and it permits us to maintain consistency.
The problem, of course, is when we inaccurately
stereotype. From a perceptual standpoint, if people
expect to see these stereotypes, that is what they will
perceive, whether they are accurate or not. One of
the problems of stereotypes is that they are
widespread.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Give some positive results of using shortcuts
when judging others.
57

 Answer – They save us time and they help us process overloads of

information effectively, but the drawbacks may out weigh such
advantages. Employment interview—Evidence indicates that
interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate.
Because interviews usually have so little consistent structure and
interviewers vary in terms of what they are looking for in a
candidate, judgments of the same candidate can vary widely.
Performance expectations—Evidence demonstrates that people will
attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perceptions are faulty. Performance evaluation—An employee’s
performance appraisal is very much dependent on the perceptual
process. Employee effort—An individual’s future in an organization
is usually not dependent on performance alone. An assessment of
an individual’s effort is a subjective judgment susceptible to
perceptual distortions and bias.

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10

 Thanks n have a nice day
58

By Akash Saxena 04/20/10