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DR.dr.Asep Sukohar
Dept. of Pharmacology-Medical Faculty UNILA
Antineoplastic Agents
Antineoplastic medications: drugs used to treat cancer, also called
cancer drugs ,cytotoxic agents and anticancer drugs.
Cancer
Along with heart disease, cancer is the largest cause of death in the
developed world
Cancer affects 1 in 3 people and is responsible for 25% of all deaths
Cancer is an unregulated proliferation of cells due to loss of normal
controls, resulting in unregulated growth, lack of differentiation,
local tissue invasion, and, often, metastasis.
Cancer can develop in any tissue or organ at any age. There is often
an immune response to tumor.
Many cancers are curable if detected at an early stage, and longterm remission is often possible in later stages.
Causes of Cancer:
1. 30 % is due to smoking: lung, mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus,
urinary bladder, pancreas, and kidney cancers.
2. Lifestyle diet, alcohol consumption, reproductive behavior, sexual
behavior, exposure to sunlight, etc.
3. At least 15% are related to viruses, e.g. cervical cancer caused by
human papillomavirus.
Types of Tumors:
-Benign: non cancerous and not an immediate threat to
life, even though treatment eventually may be required
for health.
-Malignant: tending to worsen and cause death, invasive
and metastasis
Characteristics of cancer cells:
Persistent cell proliferation
Invasive growth
Metastases (a tumor may shed cells into the circulation. Although most
circulating tumor cells die as a result of intravascular trauma, a tiny number adhere
to the vascular endothelium and penetrate into surrounding tissues, generating
independent tumors (metastases) at distant sites.)
Etiology of Cancer
Genetics
Viruses
Occupational and Environmental Carcinogens
Radiation
2-Tumor suppressor genes are inherent genes that play a role in cell
division and DNA repair and are critical for detecting inappropriate
growth signals in cells. If these genes, as a result of inherited or
acquired mutations, become unable to function, genetic mutations in
other genes can proceed unchecked, leading to neoplastic
transformation.
Another important regulatory protein, p53, prevents replication of
damaged DNA in normal cells and promotes cell death (apoptosis) in
cells with abnormal DNA. Inactive or altered p53 allows cells with
abnormal DNA to survive and divide. The p53 gene is defective in
many human cancers.
Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes that cap the ends of
chromosomes and maintain their integrity. Telomere shortening occur
with aging .Telomerase is an enzyme that provides for telomere
synthesis and maintenance, thus telomerase may potentially allow for
cellular immortality. Telomerase activity may promote tumors
through multiple, complex mechanisms, especially by subverting the
normal DNA synthetic checkpoints.
Pathogenesis of Neoplasia :
Cancer development can begin with a brief exposure (hours or days)
to a chemical into an activated form and the chemical need not be
present ever again.
However, DNA is altered via mutagens including chemical
carcinogens, viruses, and radiation. This mutations is inherted by at
least one cell division (intiation).
This mutation mainly lead to activation of proto-oncogene into
oncogenes (leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation) and/or
inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (leading to resistance to
apoptosis.)
Upon exposure to other epigenetic factors (hormones, cocarcinogens, immunosuppressantwhich themselves are non
carcinogenic) tumor growth is promoted (promotion)
(WHY???).
:Results in
:Time Course
Treatment of this
:side effect
:Other
Bone marrow:
Decreased
Neutrophils
Infection
Give colony
stimulating factors
(CSFs)
Bone marrow:
Decreased
Platelets
Bleeding,
especially from
nose and gums
Bone marrow:
Decreased
Erythrocytes
Anemia
GI tract
Stomatitis(1
pain and (2
infection
3)Nausea +
vomiting
Hair follicles
Alopecia
Reproductive
tract
Irreversible
sterility in
males,
teratogenic
Platelet infusion
erythropoetin
reversable
3-Treatment-induced tumor
Cell cycle
Scientists have determined that
cell cycle can be divided into:.
Gap 0 (G0): There are times when
a cell will leave the cycle and
quit dividing. This may be a
temporary resting period or
more permanent. An example
of the latter is a cell that has
reached an end stage of
development and will no
longer divide (e.g. neuron).
Gap 1 (G1): Cells increase in size
in Gap 1, produce enzymes
Mitosis or M Phase: Cell growth
needed for DNA synthesis
and protein production stop at
S Phase: To produce two similar
daughter cells, the complete
this stage in the cell cycle. All of
DNA instructions in the cell
the cell's energy is focused on
must be duplicated. DNA
the complex and orderly
replication occurs during this
division into two similar
S (synthesis) phase.
daughter cells.
Gap 2 (G2): It is the gap between
DNA synthesis and mitosis, the
cell will continue to grow and
produce new proteins & RNA.
Dipiro
Cancer chemotherapeutic
agents
They are classified into:
Cell-cycle non specific agents(CCNS): are cytotoxic in any phase
of the cycle even on G0 phase and so are more effective against
large slowly growing tumors.
E.G.Bleomycin.
Anticancer Drugs
There are three Major Groups of Anticancer Drugs:
1) Cytotoxic Drugs (largest group)
-Alkylating agents
-Antimetabolites
-Antitumor antibiotics
-Plant alkaloids
-Miscellaneous cytotoxic drugs
2) Hormones and hormone antagonists
These are among the best-tolerated chemotherapeutics because
they target specific receptors, and thus only specific cell types e.g.
Tamoxifen
3) Immunomodulators
-Immunostimulants, including interferons and interleukins
-Immunosuppressant
1-Cytotoxic
Drugs
Alkylating Agents(CCNS)
Nitrogen mustards
Nitrosoureas
Alkyl sulfonates
4-Platinum Coordination Compounds
1-Nitrogen Mustards
E.G.: Mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamid, melphalan & chlorambucil
a-Mechlorethamine
- first alkylating agent employed clinically
- bifunctional, thus can crosslink DNA
- extremely unstable and is inactivated within a few minutes following administration.
Thus it is given IV.
Clinical Uses
-Hodgkins Disease
-Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
Toxicity/ Side Effects
- Dose limiting toxicity is bone marrow depression
- Nausea/ Vomiting
- Alopecia
- Diarrhea
- Sterility
b-Cyclophsphamid
-It acts as cytotoxic and immunosuppressor agent.
- Prodrug which must be activated by the cytochrome p450 system, which turns
it into a nitrogen mustard.
- bifunctional agent
-most widely used alkylating agent
Clinical Uses
- Hodgkins Disease
- Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
- Solid tumors of head, neck, ovaries, and breast
- frequently used in combination with methotrexate (anti-metabolite) or
doxorubicin (anti-tumor antibiotic), or fluorouracil as adjuvant therapy post
breast cancer surgery
- Organ transplant recipients (due to immunosuppressive actions)
Toxicity/ Side Effects
- bone marrow depression
- severe nausea and vomiting
- acute hemorrhagic cystitis and renal damage???? (can be minimized via
high fluid intake/infusion and the use of?)
- sterility
- hypersensitivity reactions
2-Nitrosoureas
- bifunctional
- active against broad spectrum of neoplastic disease
- inhibits synthesis of both DNA and RNA, as well as proteins
- These drugs are highly lipophilic, so they can easily cross blood-brainbarrier, and are great for CNS tumors.
- Big problem in this class is that they are highly mutagenic and highly
carcinogenic.
- Major toxicity is DELAYED bone marrow depression & Pulmonary
fibrosis.
Clinical uses
- primary and metastasis tumors of the brain
- Hodgkins Disease
- Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
- Adenocarcinoma of stomach, colon, and rectal cancer
- Hepatocarcinoma
E.G.:
a-Carmustine
b-Lomustine
3-Alkyl Sulfonates
Busulfan
Clinical uses
Great effect on for Chronic granulocytic Leukemia
Toxicity/ Side Effects
- Dose limiting toxicity is bone marrow depression.
- Pulmonary infiltrates and pulmonary fibrosis
- Tonic-clonic seizures in epileptics
- Nausea and vomiting
- Alopecia
- Sterility
- Skin hyper pigmentation
- Cataracts
- Hepatitis
Carboplatin:
is a derivative of cisplatin with less nephero- ,neuro- & ototoxicity.
II-Antimetabolites (CCS)
An antimetabolite is a chemical with a similar structure to a
metabolite required for normal biochemical reactions, yet different
enough to interfere with the normal functions of cells, including cell
division.
All antimetabolites are used in cancer treatment, as they interfere
with DNA production and therefore cell division and the growth of
tumors (mainly in S-phase specific).
They are classified into:
1- Folic acid analogues
2- Purine analogues
3- Pyrimidine analogues
Purin and pyrimidine antagonists are phosphorelated inside the
body into nucleotid form in order to be cytotoxic
Uses
leukemia.
non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's Disease and ulcerative
colitis
It is widely used as immunosuppressant in transplantations to
control rejection reactions.
2-Purine analogues
Mercaptopurine (6mercaptopurine, or 6MP) :
-It is immunosuppressive cytotoxic substance. It is widely used in
transplantations to control rejection reactions.
-It is acts as a purine analogue and once enter the cell, it is converted to 6-MPribosephophate and can be incorporated into RNA&DNA resulting in non
functioning RNA & DNA &finally inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.
-It also inhibits purring ring biosynthesis
Adverse reactions
Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite,
Allergic reaction include rash, itching, swelling, dizziness, trouble breathing.
Mercaptopurine cause myelosuppression. Those taking mercaptopurine
should get permission from a doctor in order to receive immunizations and
vaccinations.
Azathioprine:
It is one of the main immunosuppressive cytotoxic substance. It is widely
used in transplantations to control rejection reactions. It is nonenzymatically
cleaved to 6 - M P that acts as a purine analogue and inhibits DNA synthesis
3-Pyrimidine analogues
5-flurouracil (5-FU)
It act as a uracil analogue, it is transformed inside the cell into 5-FU
deoxynucleotide which compete with deoxyuridine monophosphate DUMP
for thymidylate synthase leading to inhibition of deoxythymidine
monophosphate DTMP synthesis
inhibition of DNA synthesis (Not
RNA or protien)
Cytarabine
It is analogue to 2-deoxycytidine and in the body it is converted into
cytosine triphosphate and inhibit DNA polymerase thus inhibiting DNA
synthesis.
5-flurouracil (5-FU)
Cytarabine
2-Doxorubicin (adriamycin)
Mechanism of action
Doxorubicin is anthracyclin antibiotic interferes with the cells'
production of DNA and RNA by inserting itself between adjacent
base pair causing local uncoiling thus blocking DNA and RNA
synthesis.
Also its antitumor effect is related to its inhibition of topoisomerase
II enzyme (responsipole for DNA repair).
CYTP 450 catalyzes the conversion of Dox. into semiquinone free
radicals which produce superoxide ion & H2O2 that mediate single
strand scission in DNA
Uses
Multiple cancers including breast, bone, ovarian & leukemia.
Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL).
NonHodgkin's lymphoma
Side effects
A major problem with the use of doxorubicin is that it cause
irreversible heart problems specially heart failure .(why?)
Hypersensitivity, myelosuppression
Nausea, vomiting & diarrhea
Urine and tears may take on a red color.
3-MitomycinC
MitomycinC is an antitumor antibiotic. Mechanistically however, it
belongs to DNA alkylating agents.
Upon bioactivation inside the cell ,it preferentially alkylates O6 of
guanine base in DNA leading to cross linking of DNA.
It also degrade DNA through formation of free radicals.
Side effects
-mitomycinC may cause bone marrow suppression.
-Lung fibrosis may occur. If these lung problems do occur,
corticosteroids may provide effective therapy. Stopping
mitomycinC therapy may also be recommended.
4-Bleomycin
It is cytotoxic in any phase of the cycle even on G0 phase
Bleomycin degrade performed DNA causing chain fragmentation
and release of free bases through the formation of free radicals
(superoxide and hydroxyl radicals).
Uses
-Bleomycin is used in the treatment of a number of different cancers,
including cancer of the head and neck, skin, esophagus, lung, testis,
and genitourinary tract.
-In addition, it is used in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease and
nonHodgkin's lymphomas.
Side effects
Pulmonary fibrosis
Raynaud's phenomenon (which affects the fingers and toes, may
involve pain, pale color, and abnormal sensation as burning)
In addition, headache, and nausea and vomiting may occur.
5-Procarbazine
Procarbazine is an anticancer agent inhibits DNA and RNA synthesis
in cells
interfering with mitosis.
Uses
Procarbazine is used in the treatment of various cancers, although
the best established usage is with Hodgkin's disease.
Other cancers in which procarbazine is sometimes used include
lymphomas, brain tumors, skin cancer, lung cancer, and multiple
myeloma.
Side effects
it decreases the white blood cells and the platelet cells.
The most severe side effect is nausea and vomiting.
There may be neurological side effects such as confusion,
sleepiness, depression, nightmares, agitation, and nervousness (it
is weak MAOIhypertension???)
2-Taxanes
Paclitaxel & docetaxel
it is used for treatment of lung, ovarian and breast cancer.
Mechanism of action
paclitaxel hyper-stabilizes microtubule structure (freez
them). Paclitaxel binds to the subunit of tubulin ,the
resulting microtubule/paclitaxel complex does not have the
ability to disassemble. This adversely affects cell function
because the shortening and lengthening of microtubules is
necessary for their function.
Further research has indicated that paclitaxel induces
programmed cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells by binding
to an apoptosis stopping protein called Bcl-2 (B-cell leukemia
2) and thus arresting its function.
Side effects
Bone marrow suppression and neurotoxicity
3-Etoposide
Chemically it is deriven from podophyllotoxin, a toxin found
in the mandrake root.
An inhibitor of the enzyme topoisomerase II. cause breaks in
the DNA inside the cancer cells and prevent them from
further dividing and multiplying. Then the cells die.
Side effect
Vomiting & alopecia
Bone marrow suppression
uses
It has been useful for treatment of testicular cancer and
small cell lung cancer.
2-Mitotan
effective in the treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma.
As a chemical, mitotane resembles the insecticides DDD and DDT,
although mitotane does not harm people as these do. Scientists do not
understand why, but the drug causes damage to the adrenocortex in such
a way as to be helpful for some patients with adrenocortical tumors. In
addition, mitotane restricts the ability of the gland to produce steroids.
1-Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids have broad use in cancer treatment. Some are used to treat
adult leukemias, adult lymphomas, and acute childhood leukemia.
Immunosuppressive mechanism
Glucocorticoids suppress the cell-mediated immunity. They act by inhibiting
genes that code for the cytokines interlukin and TNF-, the most important of
which is the IL-2. The inhibition of cytokine production reduces the T cell
proliferation.
Glucocorticoids also suppress the expansion and antibody synthesis.
Side effects
Hyperglycemia due to increased gluconeogenesis, insulin resistance caution
in those with diabetes mellitus
reduced bone density (osteoporosis, higher fracture risk, slower fracture
repair)
weight gain due to increased visceral and truncal fat deposition (central
obesity) and appetite stimulation
adrenal insufficiency (if used for long time and stopped suddenly without a
taper)
muscle breakdown (proteolysis), weakness; reduced muscle mass and repair
growth failure, pubertal delay
Increased urea formation; negative nitrogen balance
The most common corticosteroids used in cancer treatment are:
dexamethasone (Decadron)
hydrocortisone
methylprednisolone (Medrol)
Hormone antagonists
Tamoxifen
Tamoxifen selectively inhibits the effects of estrogen on breast tissue, while
selectively mimicking the effects of estrogen on bone (by increasing bone
mineral density) and uterine tissues. These qualities make tamoxifen an
excellent therapeutic agent against breast cancer. it is known to compete
with estrogen by binding to estrogen receptors on the membrane of target
cells, thus limiting the effects of estrogen on breast tissue.
Tamoxifen may also has other antitumor activities :affecting oncogene
expression& promotion of apoptosis (cancer cell death)
Adverse Effects
CNS: Depression, light headedness, dizziness, headache, decreased visual
acuity &retinopathy
GI: Nausea, vomiting
Hematological: Hypercalcemia
GU: Vaginal bleeding, vaginal discharge & menstrual irregularities
Dermatologic: Hot flashes, skin rash
3-Immunomodulators
Immunomodulators
Immunosuppressant
a-Immunosuppressant
1 Glucocorticoids
2 Cytotoxic
a- Alkylating agents
b- Antimetabolites
1 Methotrexate
2.Azathioprine and Mercaptopurine
b-Immunostimulants
Biologic therapy, also called immunostimulants,
is a treatment that uses drugs to improve the
way your bodys immune system fights disease.
Your immune system is your bodys natural
defense against disease. A healthy and strong
immune system can detect the difference
between healthy cells and cancer cells. Biologic
therapy attempts to stimulate, or enhance the
immune system so that it can fight the cancer
1-Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are proteins produced in the laboratory from a
single clone of a Bcell, the type of cells of the immune system that
make antibodies. When used as a treatment for cancer, there are
three general strategies with monoclonal antibodies:
One uses the ability of the antibodies to bind to the cancer cells
having the tumor antigens on their surface. The immune system will
see the cancer cells marked with bound antibodies as foreign and
destroy them.
A second strategy is to use the antibodies to block the binding of
cytokines or other proteins that are needed by the cancerous cells
to maintain their uncontrolled growth. Monoclonal antibodies
designed to work like this bind to the cytokine receptors that are on
the tumor cell surface.
A final strategy involves special antibodies that are linked
(conjugated) to a substance that is deadly to the cancer cells. E.G.
radioactive isotopes, have been successfully conjugated to
antibodies. The antibodies are then used to specifically destroy he
tumor cells with the radioactivity or toxic substance.
Trastuzumab
Trastuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody produced by
recombinant DNA technology that binds specifically to the human
epidermal growth factor receptor 2 protein (also known as HER2)
that is found on the cell surface of some cancer tumors, most
notably breast cancer(2530% of breast malignancies) and also
targets it for destruction by the natural killer cells of immune
system.
Aldesleukin
Aldesleukin is interleukin, that is used to treat metastasis renal cell
carcinoma (a form of kidney cancer) and metastasis melanoma. Aldesleukin
is also known as interleukin2, IL2
When renal cell carcinoma and metastasis melanoma (cancer of the skin that
arises in the pigmented cells of the skin or eyes) do not respond to other
therapies, they are candidates for treatment with aldesleukin.
Aldesleukin is a biological response modifier (BRM). It promotes the
development of T cells, or the cells in the lymphatic system that can fight
cancer cells.
Side effect
Flu-like symptoms (chills, fever, fatigue)
Loss of appetite
Skin problems such as a rash, itchiness, scaling
Cardiac arrhythmias
Gastrointestinal disturbance, such as nausea and vomiting
Neurological effects, such as depression and poor concentration
Interferons
Interferons are small, natural cytokines that are produced by leucocytes
,Tlymphocytes, and fibroblasts in response to infection and other
biological stimuli.
The goal of interferon use is to activate tumorspecific cytotoxic
Tlymphocytes. Thus, tumor cells would be destroyed based on
immunotherapy.
Interferons attach to special receptors on the surface of cell membranes.
Then produce variety of functions including enhancing or inhibiting
enzymes, decreasing cell proliferation, or enhancing the activity of
macrophages and Tlymphocytes. There are several different classes of
interferons, cancer therapy primarily focuses on alpha interferons.
Alpha interferons are used to treat cancers such as hairy cell leukemia,
malignant melanoma, and Kaposi's sarcoma (an AIDSrelated cancer) as
well as many other cancers
Side effects
muscle aches, unusual metallic taste in the mouth, fever and chills, and
general flulike symptoms such as headache, loss of appetite (anorexia),
nausea and vomiting, and fatigue. To reduce the flulike symptoms
physicians may suggest that the patient take acetaminophen before each
dosage.
confusion, trouble thinking and focusing, mental depression, nervousness,
or numbness or tingling of fingers,
Levamisole
Levamisole act to restore depressed immune function.
It increases the response of T cells, or cells belonging to the
lymphatic system that can fight cancer cells. It also seems to
increase the activity of cells that attack and destroy invading
cancer cells, including both monocytes and macrophages.
Side Effects
Allergic reaction.
Decreased bone marrow function, resulting in fatigue
or signs of infection
Problems related to the nervous system, such as
confusion, loss of consciousness, or speech
disturbances
3-Angiogenesis inhibitors
Angiogenesis is the normal process by which the
human body forms new blood vessels.
Angiogenesis is important in the development of
cancer because tumors require blood vessels to
grow and spread to nearby tissue. Once a tumor
reaches a certain size it needs to develop a
blood supply in order to grow. Cancer cells will
secrete certain chemicals to promote
angiogenesis. Angiogenesis inhibitors are drugs
that can stop this process. These antiangiogenesis agents are being investigated as
potential cancer therapies.
Thalidomide
Thalidomide interferes with the growth of rapidly dividing cells.It interferes
with the formation of blood vessels. It is called an antiangiogenic drug
It is used to treat several types of cancers, including kidney, ovarian, and
breast cancer.
Side effects :
Orthostatic hypotension
Thalidomide may cause peripheral neuropathy (numbness, tingling, pain,
or burning sensations in the feet or hands).
Thalidomide may cause severe birth defects or fetal death if taken by
pregnant women (phocomelia).
Rash
Lack of bowel movements