BDA 3043

APPLIED THERMODYNAMIC
CHAPTER 5
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES

5.1

INTRODUCTION

One of the most significant

inventions of the 20th century is
the internal combustion (IC)
engine
Definition
An
engine in which the
chemical energy of the fuel
is released inside the
engine and used directly for
mechanical work

: Exhaust cam shaft

: Intake Cam shaft

: Spark plug

: Inlet and exhaust valve

: Water Jacket for cooling flow

: Piston

: Connecting Rod

: Crank shaft
2

bore
tdc
stroke
bdc
l

IC engines use reciprocating

piston in a cylinder (block)
The piston operates between the
top dead center (TDC) and the
bottom dead center (BDC)
Valves are used to control the flow
of gas into and out of engine
Stroke is the largest distance the
piston travels
Bore is the diameter of the piston
Other components are piston,
block, crankshaft, connecting rod
etc.

= connecting rod

= crank shaft

= crank angle

5.2

TYPES & CLASSIFICATIONS OF IC ENGINES

IC engine can be classified according to:

applications
Automobile, truck, locomotive, light aircraft, marine,
portable, power system etc

basic engine design

Reciprocating engine, rotary engine

no of cylinders
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 etc.

arrangement of cylinder
In-line, V-type, opposed, radial

working cycle
4-stroke, 2-stroke

fuel
Gasoline, diesel, nitro methane, alcohol, natural gas,
hydrogen etc
4

ENGINE DESIGN & CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

Inline, 4-cylinder
(Straight 4)

V-type, 6 cylinder
(V6)

ENGINE DESIGN & CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

Opposed, 4-cylinder
(Flat 4)

Rotary egine

4-STROKE ENGINE
4-Stroke
1. Requires 4 stroke of piston to complete a
cycle
1-2 Induction stroke
Inlet valve open. Exhaust valve is closed. BDC to
TDC. Air + fuel is induced.
2-3 Compression stroke
Air + fuel is compressed to TDC. Spark occurred at
S and combustion occurs mainly at constant volume.
Large increase in pressure and temperature.
3-4 Working stroke
Hot gas expand pushing the piston down to BDC.
Exhaust valve open at E to assist exhaustion. Inlet
valve is still closed.
4-1 Exhaust stroke
The gas is force to exit the cylinder. Piston moved to
TDC. Inlet valve is still closed.

2. 2 revolution of crank shaft per cycle

START

EXHAUST

INTAKE

COMPRESSION

SPARK

POWER
8

2-STROKE ENGINE

2-Stroke
1.

Requires 2 stroke of piston to complete a cycle

First stroke : BDC TDC (Both compression and
induction stroke)
As piston ascends on the compression stroke, the next
charge is drawn into crankcase C as the spring loaded
valve, S open automatically. Ignition occur before TDC.
Both transfer and exhaust port is uncovered.
Second stroke: TDC BDC ( Both working and exhaust
stroke)
At TDC working stroke begin. As the piston descend
through about 80%, the exhaust port is uncovered and
exhaust begin. The transfer port is uncovered later due to
the shape of the piston and the position of the port. The
descending piston push the air to enter the cylinder
through the transfer port.

2.

1 revolution of crank shaft per cycle

3.

Less efficient compared to 4 stroke

4.

High power-to-weight ratio

5.

Suitable for small applications

5.3 THE AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Before we could discuss in depth about IC engines, let us look at

several types air standard cycles.
We will discuss three standard cycles :

Otto cycle
Diesel cycle
Dual combustion cycle

The air standards cycles are ideal cycles used as a yardstick for the
actual cycles.
There are few assumptions applied to the cycles:

Working fluid is air behaving as ideal gas

All process in the cycle are internally reversible
Combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an
external source
Exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process
No chemical reaction
10

OTTO CYCLE

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle

for the petrol engine, the gas
engine and the high speed oil
engine.
1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Reversible constant volume
heating
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Reversible constant volume
cooling

P
3
PV C

4
PV C

1
V

11

OTTO CYCLE ENERGY BALANCE

1 2 : Isentropiccompressio
n
From1stLaw
0
U
W12

P
3

Q W
mCV T 2 T1

For isentropicprocess,
P2
P1

V1

V
2

V1 Vs Vc

V2
Vc
P2

PV C

Also,
V1

V
2

PV C

v compressio
n ratio

P1 v

T2
T1

T2

T1 v

P2

p
1

Vc

Vs

12

OTTO CYCLE ENERGY BALANCE

P
2 - 3 : Isometric heating
No work is involved
Qin Q23
mCV T3 T2

3 - 4 : Isentropic expansion

V1

V2

T4
T3

P4
P3

1

v

PV C

PV C

1
V

4 1 : Isometric cooling
No work is involved
Qout Q41
mCV T4 T1

13

OTTO CYCLE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Thermal efficiency can be found using

therefore
th 1

th

Wnet
Q
1 out
Qin
Qin

mCv T 4 T1
mCv T 3 T 2

Since 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic

Then T T 1 andT T 1
2
1 v
3
4 v

Hence substituting
th 1

T 2 V1

T1 V2

T 4 T1
T 4 T1 v 1

V
T
and 3 4
T 4 V3

1
v

14

OTTO CYCLE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

To understand MEP, let us look at

the PV diagram given.
The diagram can be translated
into a constant pressure pi
diagram which reflect the same
amount of work between V1 and
V2
That pressure, pi is called the
mean effective pressure.

P
3

4
Pb

pi imep

Wnet
or
V1 V2

V
V2

V1

Wnet pi V1 V2

15

EXAMPLE 5.1
Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on Otto cycle for
petrol engine with cylinder bore of 50 mm, a stroke of 75mm and a
clearance volume of 21.3 cm3

SOLUTION
We know

50mm

50mm andL 75mm

3

1mm 1 10 cm
3

Vc

tdc

75mm

Cycle efficiency can be determine using formula

th 1
Find

1
v

bdc

v
v

Vs Vc
Vc

16

d 2
50
Vs
L
75 147,262.15mm3 or 147.26cm3
4
4
2

Vs Vc
147.26 21.3

7.9
Vc
21.3

th 1

1
v

1
0.56 atau56%
1.41
7.9

17

EXAMPLE 5.2
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8:1. At the beginning of
the compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17C and 800 kJ/kg of
heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat addition
process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with
temperature, Determine:
i.

The maximum temperature ,

ii. The maximum pressure,

iii. The net work out-put
iv. The thermal efficiency
v. The mean effective pressure (MEP)

18

DIESEL CYCLE

Invented by Rudolph Diesel in

1892.
It works on the idea of
spontaneous
ignition
which
blasted into the cylinder by
compressed air.
Also known as a modified
constant pressure cycle
1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Reversible constant pressure
heating
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Reversible constant volume
cooling

P
2

3
PV C

PV C

4
1
V

19

DIESEL CYCLE ENERGY BALANCE

P

1 2 : Isentropic compression

From 1st Law

0
U
Q W
W12

mCV T2 T1

PV C

For isentropic process,

P2
P1

V
1
V2

V1 Vs Vc

V2
Vc
P2

v compression ratio

P1 v

Vc

T2
T1

T2

T1 v

Also,
V1

V
2

PV C

P2

p
1

Vs

20

DIESEL CYCLE ENERGY BALANCE

P
2

2 - 3 : Isobar heating

W23 pV3 V2

mC p T3 T2

Qin Q23

PV C

3 - 4 : Isentropic expansion
T4
T3

V
4
V3

P4
P3

PV C

1
V

4 1 : Isometric cooling
W 0
Qout Q41

mCV T4 T1

21

DIESEL CYCLE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Thermal efficiency can be found using

therefore
th 1

Wnet
Q
1 out
Qin
Qin

mCv T 4 T1
mCp T 3 T 2

Besides using the above formula, thermal efficiency can also be

determine using
1
th 1

th

Where

1 v

V3
cut - of ratio
V2

22

EXAMPLE 5.3
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a
compression ratio 18:1 and a cutoff ratio of 2:1. At the beginning
of the compression process, the working fluid is 0.1 MPa, 300K
and 1917 cm3. Utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions,
Determine:
i. Temperature and pressure of air at the end of each process
ii. Net work output
iii. Thermal efficiency
iv. The mean effective pressure

23

5.4 THE DUAL-COMBUSTION CYCLE

Known as the mixed cycle or semi-diesel cycle

The working cycle of modern diesel engine invented by Ackroyd-stuart in

1888, where it is a combination of the otto and diesel cycle.
1-2: Isentropic compression (adiabatic and reversible)
2-3: Heat addition at constant volume
3-4: Heat addition at constant Pressure
4-5: Isentropic expansion
5-1: Heat rejection at constant volume
P
(bar)

Qin

Isentropic

Qin
2

Qout
1

V(m3)

24

5.4 THE DUAL-COMBUSTION CYCLE

The air standard efficiency of the dual combution cycle can defined;
thDual=net work output/heat supplied=Wnet/Qin
Heat supplied,Q32+Q34
Q32=mCv(T3-T2)
Q34=mCp(T4-T3)
Heat rejected, Q51
Q51=mCv(T5-T1)
Apply the first thermodynamics to the cycle , the net work is,
Wnet=Net heat energy transferred
=(Q32+Q34)-(Q51) Wnet mC v (T3 T2 ) mC p (T4 T3 ) mC v (T5

T1 )

Hence

Simplication gives

mC v (T3 T2 ) mC p (T4 T3 ) mC v (T5 T1 )

mC v (T3 T2 ) mC p (T4 T3 )

(T5 T1 )
(T3 T2 ) (T4 T3 )

25

5.4 THE DUAL-COMBUSTION CYCLE

Or

thdual

k 1
1
1
(k 1) k ( 1

Where ; =V1/V2 is Compression ratio pvn=Constant

=V4/V3 is cut-off ratio at p constant
k=P3/P2 is pressure ratio at V constant

26

EXAMPLE 5.4
A diesel engine works on the dual combustion cycle and has a compression
ratio of 18/1. At the start of compression the air is at the temperature of 22C.
In the cycle, heat is added at constant volume until the pressure has increased
by 50% and then at constant pressure for 7% of the stroke.
Calculate the air standard efficiency of the cycle. For air assume
=1.4;Cp=1.005 kJ/kgK;Cv=0.718 kJ/kgK.

27

5.5 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF IC ENGINES

Performance Criteria I C Engine
(a)
Indicated Power (Pi)
(b)
Brake Power (Pb)
(c)
Thermal efficiency ( th)
(d)
(e)

VC
b

Volumetric efficiency ( V)

tdc

Specific fuel Consumption (sfc)

GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS

V s=

4
V s +VC
VC

bdc

b2 L
l

Referring to the diagram

Displacement;
Compression Ratio, or v=

Vs

Note:
Indicated refers to the values obtained by analysis on the
cycle (i.e. Indicated Power, Indicated MEP)
Brake refers to the values obtained through experimental
methods (i.e. Brake Power, BMEP)
Vs is multiplied by no of cylinder for multi-cylinder engines

28

INDICATED POWER

For one cylinder engine,

Indicated mean effective pressure (MEP); mep
where

L = stroke
A = area of piston

Wnet
W
W
net net
V1 V2
Vs
A L

For N rpm and n cylinder, indicated power can be written as:

n
Pi mep A L N for 4 - stroke engine
2
Pi mep A L N n for 2 - stroke engine

29

30

EXAMPLE 5.5
In the test on four-stroke four-cylinder automobile engine an indicator diagram
is taken and found to have an area of 670 mm2 and a length of 82 mm. The
spring in the indicator has a stiffness of 0.9 bar/mm.
Determine
i. the indicated power, Pi of the engine at a crankshaft speed of 3200 rev/min
ii. If the cylinders have a bore of 80 mm and the piston stroke is 105 mm,
What is the capacity of the engine.

31

BRAKE POWER

It is the measured output of the engine (actual power).

The engine is connected to a brake dynamometer which can be
loaded in such a way that the torque exerted by the engine can be
measured.
The torque is obtained by reading off a net load, W at a known
radius, r from the axis rotation and hence the torque is given by
T = W(N)xr(m)

The brake power is given by

Pb = 2N(rev/s)T(N.m) x 10-3 [kW]
Pb = N(rev/min)T(lbf.ft) / 5252 [hp]

Nowadays torque can be measured directly and Pb is obtained

directly using above equation.
32

ENGINE
DYNAMOMETER

33

34

35

36

FRICTION POWER & MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

The difference between the Pi and Pb is the friction power, Pf.

It is defined as the power required to overcome the frictional
resistance of the engine parts.

Pf Pi Pb

Pb
The mechanical efficiency is defined as m
Pi

The value lies between 80 to 90%.

37

BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

The brake power of an engine can be obtained accurately using

dynamometer.
n
P
i

mepALNn
or
P
i

mepALN
From equation Pb m Pi and
2
we will get
n
Pb m mepALNn or Pb m mepALN
2
Since m and Pi are difficult to obtain, they may be combined and
replace by a brake mean effective pressure bmep.
n
Pb bmepALNn or Pb bmepALN
2

38

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Generally we define efficiency as

output
input

For IC engine, the actual output is brake power and the input is
the chemical energy of the fuel supplied

bt

brake power
m f LCV

where
m f mass flow rate of fuel
LCV low calorific value

The value of LCV is a standard value. For diesel, LCV = 45.5

MJ/kg and for petrol, LCV = 44.2 MJ/kg

39

INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Indicated thermal efficiency is defined as

indicated power
it
m f LCV

If we divide bt with it

bt
it

Pb
mf LCV

Pi
mf LCV
Pb

m
Pi

bt
it
bt m it

40

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

It is defined as mass flow rate of fuel per unit power output.

It is a criterion of economical power production

sfc
bsfc

m f ( g / h)
P (kW )
m f ( g / h)
Pb (kW )

41

Example 5.6

A basic test engine 4-stroke and 4 cylinder are got

the reading as a following: Brake Load, 320.8 N,
Torque Arm, r=60 cm, engine speed=1500 rev/min.

The cylinders have a bore of 80 mm and the

piston stroke is 105 mm.

Calculate:
i. Brake Power
ii. Friction Power if mechanical efficiency=0.8
iv. Brake mean effective pressure.
v. if brake power of a engine is 50 kW, fuel
consumption =3.2 liter of 10 minute, and fuel
density,0.8 kg/liter. Take LCV as a 40200 kJ/kg.
Determine thermal brake efficiency
42

5.5 OTHER TYPE OF ENGINE TESTING-MORSE TEST

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

Since it is very difficult to obtain indicated power, Morse Test is

introduce to give alternative solution.
The test is suitable for multi cylinder engine.
Testing procedures:
Engine is set to run at certain speed, N and torque is measured
One cylinder is cut out by shorting the plug.
When the speed falls, load is reduced to restore the engine speed.
The torque is measured again.
The plug is placed back and another cylinder is cut out by shorting its
plug.
Speed is again restored and torque is again measured.
The procedures is repeated until all cylinder is simultaneously cut out.

43

MORSE TEST

If it is a 4 cylinder engine:
BP BPS 1 BPS 2 BPS 3 BPS 4

BP IPS 1 FPS 1 IPS 2 FPS 2 IPS 3 FPS 3 IPS 4 FPS 4

BP IPS 1 IPS 2 IPS 3 IPS 4 FPtotal

When cylinders are cut off

BP1of 0 IPS 2 IPS 3 IPS 4 FPtotal
BP2of IPS 1 0 IPS 3 IPS 4 FPtotal
BP3of IPS 1 IPS 2 0 IPS 4 FPtotal
BP4of IPS 1 IPS 2 IPS 3 0 FPtotal

44

MORSE TEST

Subtracting the equations, for cylinder 1

BP BP1of IPS 1 IPS 2 IPS 3 IPS 4 FPtotal

0 IPS 2 IPS 3 IPS 4 FPtotal

BP BP1of IPS 1

So for each cylinder,

IPS 1 BP BP1of

IPS 2 BP BP2of

IPS 3 BP BP3of

IPS 4 BP BP4of

Then for the engine

IP IPS 1 IPS 2 IPS 3 IPS 4

IP 2NR W W1off W W2off W W3off W W4off

45

EXAMPLE 5.5
A Morse test is carried out to a 4 cylinder, 4 stroke petrol engine. Based
on the data given, determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine:
W

120N

W1-off

86.8N

W2-off

81.4N

W3-off

88.6N

W4-off

82.1N

46