ULTRASOUND AND

ACOUSTICS

Waves
A WAVE is a vibration or disturbance in space.
Kinds of Waves
Longitudinal Wave:
A wave that travels
in a back and forth
movement.
Transverse Wave: A
wave that disturbs
particles
in
a
perpendicular motion
in the direction of the
wave.

Wave Crest
The maximum disturbance a wave will create from the resting
position

Wave trough
Maximum displacement a wave will create in the opposite
direction from the resting position.

Amplitude
The magnitude of the displacement to either the crest or the
trough.

Period
The time required for a wave to repeat itself. This is the time that
is required to move through one full wave cycle.

Waves in Air:
Condensation
When a longitudinal wave forces particles closer
together. This results in a pulse of increased density and
pressure.
Rarefaction
A zone of reduced density and pressure.
Sound
A vibrating object produces condensation and
rarefactions that expand from the source. The vibrations
can be interpreted as sound by the human ear if the
frequency of the waves is between 20 and 20,000 Hz.

Types of Sound Waves

Ultrasound
- sound waves with frequencies above the normal human range of
hearing.
Sounds in the range from 20-100kHz

Infrasound
- sounds with frequencies below the normal human range of
hearing.
Sounds in the 20-200 Hz range
A MEDIUM is the substance that all SOUND WAVES travel
through and need to have in order to move.

Intensity of Sound
Loudness:
The energy of a sound wave is called the wave intensity and is
measured in Watts per square meter.
The intensity of sound is expressed on the decibel scale, which
relates to changes in loudness as perceived by the human ear.
The intensity, or energy, of a sound wave is the rate of energy
transferred to an area perpendicular to the waves.

Pressure Vs Position
The pressure at a given point in a medium fluctuates slightly as
sound waves pass by. The wavelength is determined by the
distance between consecutive compressions or consecutive
rarefactions. At each compression, the pressure is a tad bit higher
than its normal pressure. At each rarefaction, the pressure is a tad
bit lower than normal. Lets call the equilibrium (normal)
pressure P0 and the difference in pressure from equilibrium P.
P varies and is at a max at a compression or rarefaction. In a
fluid like air or water, Pmax is typically very small compared to
P0 but our ears are very sensitive to slight deviations in pressure.
The bigger P is, the greater the amplitude of the sound wave,
and the louder the sound.

Acoustics
Acoustics - Sound and its effects
Acoustics sometimes refers to the science of sound. It can also
refer to how well sounds traveling in enclosed spaces can be
heard.
Building acoustics or architectural acoustics deals with sound in
the built environment.
Structures with acoustic implications:
Airports
Churches
Theatres
Concert and opera halls
Educational structures, including class rooms, lecture halls,
libraries, music practice rooms etc.

Reverberation
Sound produced in an enclosure does not die out immediately
after the source has ceased to produce it.
A sound produced in a hall undergoes multiple reflections
from the walls, floor and ceiling before it becomes inaudible.

A person in the hall continues to receive successive

reflections of progressively diminishing intensity.
This prolongation of sound before it decays to a negligible
intensity is called reverberation.
Reverberation Time: The time taken by the sound in a room to
fall from its average intensity to inaudibility level is called the
reverberation time of the room.
Reverberation time is defined as the time during which the sound
energy density falls from its steady state value to its onemillionth (10-6) value after the source is shut off.

Factors affecting acoustic of buildings

and their remedies
1. Reverberation Time: A very short reverberation time
makes a room dead. On the other hand, a long reverberation time
renders speech unintelligible. The optimum value for
reverberation time depends on the purpose for which a hall is
designed.

Remedies
The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable
choice of building materials and furnishing materials.
Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the
hall, there should be a limited number of windows. They may
be opened or closed to obtain optimum reverberation time.

2. Loudness: Sufficient loudness at every point in the hall is

an important factor for satisfactory hearing. Excessive
absorption in the hall or lack of reflecting surfaces near the
sound source may lead to decrease in the loudness of the sound.

Remedies
A hard reflecting surface positioned near the sound source
improve the loudness.
Low ceilings are also of help in reflecting the sound energy
towards the audience.
Adjusting the absorptive material in the hall will improve the
situation.
When the hall is large and audience more, loud speakers are
to be installed to obtain the desired level of loudness.

3. Focussing: Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration

of reflected sound, creating a sound of larger intensity at the focal

point. These spots are known as sound foci. Such concentrations
of sound intensity at some points lead to deficiency of reflected
sound at other points. The spots of sound deficiency are known as
dead spots. The sound intensity will be low at dead spots and
inadequate hearing. Further, if there are highly reflecting parallel
surfaces in the hall, the reflected and direct sound waves may
form standing waves which leads to uneven distribution of sound
in the hall.

Remedies
The sound foci and dead spots may be eliminated if curvilinear
interiors are avoided. If such surfaces are present, they should
be covered by highly absorptive materials.
Suitable sound diffusers are to be installed in the hall to cause
even distribution of sound in the hall.
A paraboloidal reflecting surface arranged with the speaker at
its focus is helpful in directing a uniform reflected beam of
sound in the hall.

4. Echoes: When the walls of the hall are parallel, hard and
separated by about 34m distance, echoes are formed. Curved
smooth surfaces of walls also produce echoes.

Remedies

This defect is avoided by selecting proper shape for the

auditorium. Use of splayed side walls instead of parallel walls.
By covering the opposite walls and high ceiling with absorptive
material.
5. Echelon Effect: If a hall has a flight of steps, with equal
width, the sound waves reflected from them will consist of
echoes with regular phase difference. These echoes combine to
produce a musical note which will be heard along with the direct
sound. This is called echelon effect. It makes the original sound
unintelligible or confusing.

Remedies

It may be remedied by having steps of unequal width.

The steps may be covered with proper sound absorbing materials,
for example with a carpet.

6. Resonance: Sound waves are capable of setting physical

vibration in surrounding objects, such as window panes, walls,
enclosed air etc. The vibrating objects in turn produce sound
waves. The frequency of the forced vibration may match some
frequency of the sound produced and hence result in resonance
phenomenon. Due to the resonance, certain tones of the original
music may get reinforced that may result in distortion of the
original sound.

Remedies
The vibrations of bodies may be suitably damped to eliminate
resonance due to them by proper maintenance and
selection.

7. Noise: Noise is unwanted sound which masks the satisfactory

hearing of speech and music.

Remedies
The building may be located on quite sites away from heavy
traffic, market places, railway stations, airports etc.
They may be shaded from noise by interposing a buffer zone
of trees, gardens etc.
The problem due to machinery and domestic appliances can be
overcome by placing vibration isolators between machines and
their supports.
Cavity walls, compound walls may be used to increase the
noise transmission loss.
The walls, floors and ceilings may be provided with enough
sound absorbing materials.
The gadgets or machinery should be placed on sound
absorbent material.

Ultrasonic Waves
The word ultrasonic combines the Latin roots ultra, meaning
beyond and sonic, or sound.
The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range i.e.
above 20000Hz are called ultrasonic waves and and therefore
cannot be heard by humans.
Generally these waves are called as high frequency waves.
All sound waves, including ultrasound are longitudinal waves.
Medical ultrasounds are usually of the order of MEGAHERTZ
(1-15MHz).
When an ultrasonic wave meets a
boundary
between
two
different
materials some of it is refracted and
some is reflected. The reflected wave
is detected by the ultrasound scanner
and forms the image.

Properties of Ultrasonic Waves

They have a high energy content.
Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected,
refracted and absorbed.
They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable
loss of energy.
If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of
ultrasonics in a liquid, it serves as a diffraction grating. It is
called an acoustic grating.
They produce intense heating effect when passed through a
substance.

Advantages and disadvantages of Ultrasound

Waves
ADVANTAGES
No known hazards non ionizing for patient and sonographer.
Good for imaging soft tissue.
Relatively cheap and portable.
DISADVANTAGES
Cannot pass through bone
Cannot pass through air spaces.
Poor resolution.

Methods of Production
Two Methods
Piezoelectric
Magnetostriction

The Piezoelectric Effect

piezoelectric means pressure electricity

Principle:

If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces of

certain crystals like quartz, equal and opposite electrical charges
appear across its other faces. This is called as piezo-electric
effect.
The converse of piezo electric effect is also true.

Discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in

1880.

If an electric field is applied

to one pair of faces, the
corresponding changes in the
dimensions of the other pair
of faces of the crystal are
produced. This is known as
inverse piezo electric effect
or electrostriction.

Advantages
1. Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 108Hz or 500 MHz can
be obtained with this arrangement.
2. The output of this oscillator is very high.
3. It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages
1. The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high
2. The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.

Magnetostriction effect
Principle:
When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic
field parallel to its length, the rod experiences a small change in
its length. This is called magnetostricion effect.

The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in the rod

depends upon the strength of the magnetic field, the nature of the
materials and is independent of the direction of the magnetic field
applied.

Advantages
1.
2.

The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production

cost is low
At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be
produced without the risk of damage of the oscillatory
circuit.

Disadvantages
1.It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate ultrasonic
frequency above 3000 kHz (i.e. 3MHz).
2.The frequency of oscillations depends on temperature.
3.There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and eddy
current.

Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

In Engineering:
1) Detection of flaws in metals (Non Destructive Testing
NDT): Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence of flaws
or defects in the form of cracks, blowholes porosity etc., in the
internal structure of a material. By sending out ultrasonic beam
and by measuring the time interval of the reflected beam, flaws in
the metal block can be determined.
2) Ultrasonic Drilling: Ultrasonics are used for making holes in
very hard materials like glass, diamond etc.
3) Ultrasonic Welding: The properties of some metals change on
heating and therefore, such metals cannot be welded by electric
or gas welding. In such cases, the metallic sheets are welded
together at room temperature by using ultrasonic waves.

4) Ultrasonic Soldering: Metals like aluminum cannot be

directly soldered. However, it is possible to solder such metals by
ultrasonic waves.
5) Ultrasonic Cutting and Machining: Ultrasonic waves are
used for cutting and machining.
6) Ultrasonic Cleaning: It is the most cheap technique employed
for cleaning various parts of the machine, electronic assembles,
armatures, watches etc., which cannot be easily cleaned by other
methods.
7) SONAR: SONAR is a technique which stands for Sound
Navigation and Ranging. It uses ultrasonics for the detection and
identification of under water objects.

In Medicines
Obstetrics and Gynaecology
The development and monitoring of a developing foetus
Cardiology
Seeing the inside of the heart to identify abnormal structures or
functions and measuring blood flow through the heart and major
blood vessels.
Urology
measuring blood flow through the kidney
seeing kidney stones
detecting prostate cancer early