Wargaming and Military Culture:

Education and
Cohesion-Building
Eric M. Walters, MA MSSI
Professor of Land Warfare, Military History, and
Intelligence
American Military University

Agenda
Some Definitions
The Goals of Military Culture
Symptoms of an Underdeveloped Military
Culture
The Cultural Paradox
Wargaming Parables
Wargaming and Education
Wargaming and Cohesion
Future Wargame Requirements

Eric M. Walters

Definitions
Culture: 4.a) development,
improvement, or refinement of the
mind,b) the result of this, refined
ways of thinking, talking,
acting,etc.6. The ideas, customs,
skills, arts, etc., of a given people in
a given period.
Websters New World Dictionary of the American
Language, Second College Edition, p. 345.

Eric M. Walters

Definitions
Education: 1. The process of training and
developing the knowledge, mind, character,
etc., especially by formal schooling;
teaching; training 2. Knowledge, ability,
etc., thus developed 3.a) formal schooling
at an institution of learning b) a stage of
this 4. Systematic study of the methods
and theories of teaching and learning.
Websters New World Dictionary of the American
Language, Second College Edition, p. 444.

Eric M. Walters

Definitions
Cohesion: 1. The act of condition of
cohering; tendency to stick together...
Cohere: 1.a) to stick together, as parts of a
mass2. To be connected naturally or
logically, as by a common principle; be
consistent 3. To become or stay united in
action; be in accord.
Websters New World Dictionary of the American
Language, Second College Edition, p. 276.

Eric M. Walters

Definitions
Wargame: 1. Same as KRIEGSPIEL 2.
Practice maneuvers involving actual
troops and military equipment.
Kriegspiel: a game for teaching or
practicing military tactics by the use of
small figures representing troops, tanks,
etc., moved about on a large map or
representation of the terrain.
Websters New World Dictionary of the American
Language, Second College Edition, pp. 783 & 1601.

Eric M. Walters

The Goal of Military Culture

The essential thing is action. Action has
three stages: the decision born of thought,
the order or preparation for execution, and
the execution itself. All three stages are
governed by will. The will is rooted in
character, and for the man of action,
character is of more critical importance than
intellect. Intellect without will is worthless,
will without intellect is dangerous.
Hans von Seeckt, Thoughts of a Soldier, p. 123

Eric M. Walters

Symptoms of an Underdeveloped
Culture--in Planning
The clearest evidence ofdeficiency is
too much communication--reams of
orders and directives which in the
planning stage are little more than
generalities and exhortations, and which
defer too much to the moment of
decision.
CAPT Wayne P. Hughes, Jr., USN (Ret.) Fleet Tactics
and Coastal Combat, Second Edition, p. 31

Eric M. Walters

Symptoms of an Underdeveloped
Culture--in Execution

From A Band of Brothers? Multi-Player Games

If you hold the chief command, among other things you
will learn that:
1) Your subordinates cannot read your handwriting.
2) Your subordinates cannot tell left from right.
3) Your subordinates cannot grasp the simplest
concepts of maneuver.
4) Threats of physical violence are often necessary to
secure compliance with your orders.
S. Craig Taylor, Fighting Sails, The General
Magazine, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Jul-Aug 1976), p. 5.

Eric M. Walters

Symptoms of an Underdeveloped
Culture--in Execution
If you hold a subordinate command, you will learn
that:
1) You cannot read the commanders handwriting.
2) The commander keeps issuing orders to turn left
when the situation obviously calls for turning to the
right.
3) The commander must think you can read his mind to
even attempt such complex maneuvers.
4) The commander has a nasty temper.
S. Craig Taylor, Fighting Sails, The General
Magazine, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Jul-Aug 1976), p. 5.

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The Cultural Paradox

Draw any good naval leaderinto a
conversation on his experienceand it
will quickly come out that the tactical
plan imposed by his seniors was to his
mind too rigid. He will tell you how he
maneuvered more cleverly and fired his
weapons more effectively than
prescribed.
CAPT Wayne P. Hughes, Jr., USN (Ret.) Fleet Tactics
and Coastal Combat, Second Edition, p. 31

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The Cultural Paradox

In the next breath he will tell you how when he
was in command his units moved together like
clockwork. He will swear to you that all his
captains knew exactly what each teammate
would do as instinctively as a basketball player
knows from body language which way his
teammate will cut. It will never occur to the
speaker that there is the slightest inconsistency
in his account.
CAPT Wayne P. Hughes, Jr., USN (Ret.) Fleet Tactics
and Coastal Combat, Second Edition, p. 31

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Coping with the Paradox

Education: Learning about the
game (i.e., War)
Cohesion: Learning about the
team (i.e., the unit)
What does wargaming/kriegspiel offer?

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What wargaming offers:

Individual experience: Education
The environment
The opposition
What works, what does not work (?)
Self-confidence

Collective experience: Cohesion

Collective knowledge & wisdom resulting from
individual education
Trust in each other

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A Wargaming Parable Available

in Military Literature
Daniel P. Bolgers: The Battle For Hunger
Hill: The 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry
Regiment at the Joint Readiness
Training Center (1997)
Laser tag team competitions used to
train all hands
Two JRTC rotations demonstrate
improvements in individual education and
collective cohesion
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A Wargaming Parable
Available in Science Fiction
Orson Scott Cards Nebula and Hugo
Award Winner: Enders Game (1977)
Computer wargames and 3-D zero-G
laser tag team competitions used to
train future commanders
Used for individual education and
building collective cohesion

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Wargaming and Education

Nine-tenths of tactics are certain, and taught in
books: but the irrational tenth is like the
kingfisher flashing across the pool....It can only
be ensured by instinct, sharpened by thought
practicing the stroke so often that at the crisis
it is as natural as a reflex.
Colonel T. E. Lawrence, The Science of Guerrilla
Warfare, 1926.

Wargaming and Education:

One Problem To Be Solved
I have often seen how pathetic those general staff
officers are who draw their advice from their own
observed data, how indecisive and timid they are
to accomplish anything thatthe circumstances
demand. Such people do not know the risks
which must be taken in warThey probably
never risk a bold idea, since no similar situation
crowned with success in the past give them the
necessary self-confidence.
General Gerhard Scharnhorst, quoted in Rudolf
Stadelman, Scharnhorst: Schicksal und geistige Welt,
ein Fragment, pp. 155-156

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Wargaming and Education:

And Another.
art can be developed, but like hitting a curve ball, it takes
a bit of innate talent, too. One day, if you have it, you look
at a situation and you get the picture. Some folks, even
very senior officers, never get it. These men, often very
bright, insist upon learning all the proper buzz words, and
chant them repeatedly, as if saying them enough would
somehow impart understanding. Despite Benning,
Leavenworth, and all the books, such people never quite
bridge the gap between theory and practice. They look, but
do not see.
Daniel P. Bolger, The Battle For Hunger
Hill, p. 88.
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Historical Antecedents:
Wargaming and Education
Ancient Games: Chess and Go
The Prussian Army game: Reisswitzs
kriegspiel
Its not a game at all--its training for war!
Army Chief of Staff, Gen. Von Muffling
Lots of rules and tables

Verdy du Vernoiss Simplified War Game

Relied on umpire experience/judgment
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Historical Antecedents:
Wargaming and Education
Commercial Games/Miniatures (H.G. Wells,
Fred Jane, Fletcher Pratt, Charles Roberts,
Jim Dunnigan, et. al.)
Naval War College wargames
WW II wargames
German wargames
Soviet wargames
Japanese wargames
Eric M. Walters

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Educational Wargaming
Today
Commercial Gaming
Paintball and Laser Tag
Board wargames and miniatures
Computer wargames

Department of Defense Gaming

Field Laser Tag: NTC, JRTC, and CTC (USA)
Red Flag (USAF)/Top Gun (USN)/WTI FINEX
(USMC)
Adapted commercial games
Command Post Exercise (CPX) drivers

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Educational Wargaming Issues:

Entertainment versus realism
Commercial paintball, laser tag, and many computer
games suffer here

Game design bias versus realism

DoD games most prone
Acquisition imperatives
C4I system limitations

Difficulties in translating experience obtained from

artificial environments to real situations in the future

Eric M. Walters

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Wargaming and Education:

Worst Case Outcome
Attempts at realism can be a distraction for
contemporary situations:
It worked when we did it in [substitute exercise
name here], so it will work again.
[Insert exercise name here] validated our
concepts.

To mitigate this, include many variables on

conditions, weapons performance, unit
morale, and a host of other imponderables
and play it more than once!
Eric M. Walters

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Wargaming and Education:

Best Case Outcome
Fighters gain self-confidence from
their successes and learn from their
failures/mistakes.
Unintended bias is kept to a
minimum. Compare outcomes to
history/combat experience.

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Wargaming and Cohesion

Four brave men who do not know each
other will not dare attack a lion. Four less
brave, but knowing each other well, sure
of their reliability and consequently of
their mutual will attack resolutely.
Colonel Charles Ardant du Picq. Battle Studies, p. 110

Wargaming and Cohesion:

One Problem To Be Solved
The men lacked true battle drills to act on contact.
Again, home station training, heavily laden with
live-fire exercises, exacerbated this tendency.
On the range one could merely leapfrog along,
with one group shooting while neighbors
alongside inched forward. The fixed targets
always obediently remained to the front. Real
enemies do not so oblige. A big bold flank cures
that.
Daniel P. Bolger, The Battle For Hunger
Hill, p. 132.
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Wargaming and Cohesion:

And Another.
Tiger and Griffin soldiers were reduced to
chanting catcalls, while their commanders
argued about whether to try to use their
overwhelming force to attack Dragon
Army.Momoe was all for attacking--we
outnumber him two to one--while Bee said, sit
tight and we cant lose, move out and he can
figure out a way to beat us.
Orson Scott Card, Enders Game, p. 152.
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Historical Antecedents:
Wargaming and Cohesion
Admiral Horatio Nelson, his captains,
and his victories
Tactical wargaming/seminars

Prussian reformers and the victories

of 1813, 1815, 1866, and 1870
Kriegspiel
Staff rides
Tactical Decision Games
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Contemporary Efforts:
Wargaming and Cohesion?
National Training Center (NTC), Combat
Training Center (CTC), and Joint Readiness
Training Center (JRTC)?
Top Gun (USN), Red Flag (USAF), and
Weapons Tactics Instructor Course (USMC)?
GAUNTLET training at Fort Knox: U.S. Army
Armor School?
Computer-driven CPXs
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Wargaming & Cohesion Issues:

Training objectives lead to scripted/canned
scenarios
The group is not sufficiently stressed

Opportunities to practice are limited

Resource limitations (time, space, & tools)
Simulation availability
Training area/range availability
The tyranny of the unit training schedule

Keeping the team together

Personnel system doesnt encourage this

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Wargaming and Cohesion:

Worst Case Outcome
The game is rigged for success each
time--the team is not seriously stressed.
Small local teams can win at home, but it
doesnt always mean they are ready to
win the championship in the Big
Leagues.

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Wargaming and Cohesion:

Best Case Outcome
Individuals within the unit learn under
stress how each other think and
perform; they begin to trust all members
of the team IAW this understanding.
Close personal bonding makes it harder
for individuals to let down their
teammates.

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Future Wargame Requirements:

Strive towards realism (especially for historical
situations), but include entertainment where you
can
Allow changes in performance parameters and
algorithms, especially in contemporary scenarios
Include a wide variety of scenario/situation types
across all conflict spectrums and environments
Land, Air, SeaStrategic, Operational, Tactical
Ancient through Near Future, even Sci-Fi

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Future Wargame Requirements:

Ensure free play force-on-force
Always maximize fog and friction; rheostat/toggle
down enemy strength and capabilities to work up
new units at first

Maximize available resources

Obtain commercial solutions; put them to work
Integrate competitive team wargames & training
Allow unstructured practice and play

Stabilize the unit

Identify the playing season and keep the team
together throughout

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Best References/Resources
Rudolf M. Hofmann, General der Infanterie. German Army War
Games. Carlisle, PA: US Army War College, 1983.
Peter P. Perla. The Art of Wargaming: A Guide for
Professionals and Hobbyists. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute
Press, 1990.
James F. Dunnigan, MILGAMES listserv:
http://members.aol.com/jfdunnigan/private/index.htm. Also
check out his Professional Wargamers Page at URL:
http://www.strategypage.com/prowg/default.asp
Annual CONNECTIONS conferences, coordinated by Matthew
Caffrey: e-mail at <Matthew.Caffrey@MAXWELL.AF.MIL>

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QUESTIONS??