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Blood Vessels

Blood carried thru closed system of vessels that begins and


ends at the heart

Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins

Arteries - away from heart; branch, diverge

Veins - toward the heart;

Capillaries- capillary beds in tissues; site of internal


respiration

merge, converge

deliver nutrients, O2 unloading


pick up wastes, CO2 loading

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Tunica intima
Endothelium
Subendothelial layer
Internal elastic lamina
Tunica media
(smooth muscle and
elastic fibers)
External elastic lamina

Valve

Tunica externa
(collagen fibers)

Lumen
Artery

(b)

Capillary
network

Lumen
Vein
Basement membrane
Endothelial cells

Capillary

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Figure 19.1b

Blood Vessel Anatomy

Conducting/elastic- big, close to


heart, pressure reservoirs; expand
during systole, < during diastole;
Distributing to organs,
vasoconstriction; < stretchy
Regulate flow to capillaries
Smallest- 1 cell thick; 1 rbc in
diameter; 3 types
Formed from united capillaries
Larger lumen than arteries; have
valves; blood reservoirs
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Table 19.1

Venous system
Large veins
(capacitance
vessels)

Small veins
(capacitance
vessels)

Postcapillary
venule
Thoroughfare
channel

Arterial system
Heart
Large
lymphatic
vessels
Lymph
node
Lymphatic
system
Arteriovenous
anastomosis

Elastic arteries
(conducting
vessels)
Muscular arteries
(distributing
vessels)

Lymphatic
Sinusoid
capillary
Arterioles
(resistance vessels)
Terminal arteriole
Metarteriole
Precapillary sphincter
Capillaries
(exchange vessels)

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Figure 19.2

3 types of capillaries:
1.

Continuous

2.

Fenestrated

3.

Sinusoidal

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Continuous Capillaries

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Figure 19.3a

Fenestrated Capillaries

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Figure 19.3b

Sinusoids

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Figure 19.3c

Capillary Beds- True capilaries vs shunts

Blood flow is regulated by vasomotor


nerves and local chemical conditions
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Figure 19.4a

Capillary Beds- Vascular shunts

Blood flow is regulated by vasomotor


nerves and local chemical conditions
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Figure 19.4b

Venous System: Venules

Venules- from capillary beds that converge

Fluids, WBCs leak to tissues

Postcapillary venules

smallest venules

endothelium and a few pericytes

Large venules

one or two layers of smooth muscle (tunica media)

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Venous System: Veins

Veins- venules converge

Three tunics

thin tunica media

thick tunica externa

Capacitance vessels or blood reservoirs

contain 65% of the blood supply

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Vein
Artery

(a)

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Figure 19.1a

Venous System: Veins

< BP, thinner walls, > lumen than arteries

Valves

Varicose veins

Venous sinuses specialized, flattened veins

extremely thin walls

coronary sinus of the heart

dural sinuses of the brain

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Vascular Anastomoses

Blood vessels connect

Arterial anastomoses provide collateral channels


for blood to reach a given body region

> in veins than arteries

If one branch is blocked, the collateral channel can


supply the area with adequate blood supply

Thoroughfare channels are examples of


arteriovenous anastomoses

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Blood Flow

Volume of blood flowing through a vessel, an


organ, or the entire circulation in a given period:

In ml/min.

= cardiac output (CO), for entire circulation

Constant at rest (fairly)

Varies widely through individual organs

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Blood Pressure (BP)

Force per unit area exerted on wall of blood vessel


by contained blood

In mm Hg

Measured in reference to systemic arterial BP in


large arteries near the heart

The differences in BP within the vascular system


provide the driving force that keeps blood moving
from higher to lower pressure areas

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Peripheral Resistance

Amt of friction blood encounters thru systemic


circulation

Sources:
1. Blood viscosity (> stickiness, > R)
2. Total blood vessel length (> length, > R)
3. Blood vessel diameter

varies inversely with 4th power of vessel radius

radius > by 2X, R < 1/16

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Resistance Factors: Blood Vessel Diameter

Major determinates - Small-diameter arterioles

R > when diameter < b/c more of the fluid contacts


the vessel wall of smaller vessels than larger ones

> diameter changes in small arterioles than large

Atherosclerosis:

Turbulent blood flow- opposite of smooth

Dramatically increase resistance due to turbulence

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Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance

Blood flow (F) - directly proportional to P


between two points in the circulation (BP)

> BP, > F

< BP, < F

F - inversely proportional to resistance (R)

> R, < F

R is more important than P in influencing local


blood pressure

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Systemic Blood Pressure

The pumping action of the heart generates blood flow

Pressure results when flow is opposed by resistance

Systemic pressure

Is highest in the aorta

Declines throughout the pathway

Is 0 mm Hg in the right atrium

The steepest drop occurs in arterioles

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Systemic Blood Pressure

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Figure 19.5

Arterial Blood Pressure


1. Elasticity (compliance or distensibility)
2. Amt blood forced into them

Blood pressure is pulsatile (BP rises and falls)

Systolic

Diastolic

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Arterial Blood Pressure

Systolic pressure arterial pressure during


ventricular contraction

Diastolic pressure lowest arterial pressure

Pulse pressure systolic minus diastolic pressure

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) pressure that


propels the blood to the tissues

MAP = diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure

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Factors Aiding Venous Return

Passive return- not pusatile

Respiratory pump breathing drives return

Muscular pump skeletal muscle contractions


milk blood toward the heart

Valves prevent backflow during venous return

PLAY

InterActive Physiology : Anatomy Review:


Blood Vessel Structure and Function, pages 327

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Factors Aiding Venous Return

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Figure 19.6

Maintaining Blood Pressure

BP varies directly with:

Cardiac output (CO)

Peripheral resistance (PR) or R

Blood volume

Blood pressure = CO x R

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Cardiac Output (CO)

Neural & Hormonal controls

Resting HR- vagus nerves; slow rate

Stroke volume controlled by venous return (EDV)

With stress: the cardioacceleratory center increases


heart rate and stroke volume

The end systolic volume (ESV) decreases and


MAP increases

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Maintaining BP:

Cardiac Output (CO)

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Figure 19.7

Maintaining BP: Controls

Short-term controls:

Neural:

Baroreceptors

Chemoreceptors

Counteract moment-to-moment fluctuations in


blood pressure by altering peripheral resistance

Long-term controls regulate blood volume

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Maintaining BP:
Neural control:
Baroreceptor
reflexes

Impulse traveling along


afferent nerves from
baroreceptors:
Stimulate cardioinhibitory center
(and inhibit cardioacceleratory center)

Baroreceptors
in carotid
sinuses and
aortic arch
stimulated

Sympathetic
impulses to
heart
( HR and contractility)

CO

Inhibit
vasomotor center
R
Rate of vasomotor
impulses allows
vasodilation
( vessel diameter)

Arterial
blood pressure
rises above
normal range
Stimulus:
Rising blood
pressure

CO and R
return blood
pressure to
Homeostatic
range

Imb
ala
nce

Homeostasis: Blood pressure in normal range


Stimulus:
Declining
blood pressure

Imb
ala
nce

CO and R
return blood
pressure to
homeostatic
range

Peripheral
resistance (R)

Cardiac
output
(CO)

Impulses from
baroreceptors:
Stimulate cardioacceleratory center
(and inhibit cardioinhibitory center)
Sympathetic
impulses to heart
( HR and contractility)

Vasomotor
fibers
stimulate
vasoconstriction

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Arterial blood pressure


falls below normal range
Baroreceptors in
carotid sinuses
and aortic arch
inhibited

Stimulate
vasomotor
center

Figure 19.8

Maintaining BP: Neural Controls: Chemoreceptors

Chemoreceptors in carotid and aorta

< oxygen, < pH, > carbon dioxide

> CO, > vasoconstriction

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BP control by Higher Brain Centers

While reflexes that routinely regulate BP are


integrated in medulla, these controls can be in turn
be influenced by the cortex & hypothalamus

Cortex and Hypothalamus can modify BP via


relays to medullary centers

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Maintaining BP: Chemicals that increase BP

Norepinephrine and epinephrine

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Angiotensin II

Endothelin and prostaglandin-derived growth


factor (PDGF)

All cause vasoconstriction

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Maintaining BP: Chemicals that decrease BP

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) < blood volume

Nitric oxide (NO) brief, potent vasodilator

Inflammatory chemicals histamine, prostacyclin,


and kinins are potent vasodilators

Alcohol causes BP to drop by inhibiting ADH

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Maintaining BP: Long-Term Mechanisms: Renal

Controls BP by controlling blood volume

> BP, > water loss by kidneys; lowers BP

< BP, < water loss by kidneys: raises BP

Controls BP by controlling renin-angiotensin


mechanism

InterActive Physiology :
Blood Pressure Regulation, pages 330

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Kidney Action and Blood Pressure

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Figure 19.9

MAP Increases

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Blood
doping

Figure 19.10

Activity of
muscular
pump and
respiratory
pump

Release
of ANP

Fluid loss from Crisis stressors:


hemorrhage, exercise, trauma,
excessive
body
sweating
temperature

Conservation
of Na+ and
water by kidney

Blood volume
Blood pressure

Blood pH, O2,


CO2

Blood
volume

Baroreceptors

Chemoreceptors

Venous
return

Stroke
volume

Bloodborne
Dehydration,
chemicals:
high hematocrit
epinephrine,
NE, ADH,
angiotensin II;
ANP release

Body size

Activation of vasomotor and cardiac


acceleration centers in brain stem

Heart
rate

Cardiac output

Diameter of
blood vessels

Blood
viscosity

Blood vessel
length

Peripheral resistance

Initial stimulus
Physiological response
Result

Mean systemic arterial blood pressure

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Figure 19.11

Monitoring Circulatory Efficiency

Vital signs:

pulse

blood pressure

respiratory rate

body temperature

Pulse: pressure wave caused by the expansion and


recoil of arteries

Radial pulse (taken at the wrist) routinely used

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Palpated Pulse

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Figure 19.11

Variations in Blood Pressure

Cycles over a 24-hour period

>AM with retinoic acid levels

Varies with age, sex, weight, race, mood, posture,


socioeconomic status, and physical activity

Measuring Blood Pressure, pages 312

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Alterations in Blood Pressure

Hypotension systolic pressure < 100 mm Hg

Hypertension 140/90 or higher

Optimal- <120/80

(systolic pressure, normally 110140 mm Hg)

(diastolic pressure, normally 7080 mm Hg)

Chronic elevation is a major cause of heart failure,


vascular disease, renal failure, and stroke
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Hypotension

Orthostatic hypotension temporary low BP and


dizziness when suddenly rising from a sitting or
reclining position

Chronic hypotension hint of poor nutrition and


warning sign for Addisons disease

Acute hypotension important sign of circulatory


shock

Threat to patients undergoing surgery and those in


intensive care units

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Hypertension

Hypertension maybe transient or persistent

Primary or essential hypertension 140/90 or


higher

diet, obesity, age, race, heredity, stress, and


smoking

Secondary hypertension result of identifiable


disorders

excessive renin secretion, arteriosclerosis, and


endocrine disorders

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Blood Flow Through Body Tissues

Blood flow (tissue perfusion) is involved in

Delivery of O2 and nutrients to, and removal of


wastes from, tissue cells

Gas exchange (lungs)

Absorption of nutrients (digestive tract)

Urine formation (kidneys)

Rate of flow is precisely the right amount to


provide for proper function

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Brain
Heart
Skeletal
muscles
Skin
Kidney

Abdomen
Other
Total blood
flow at rest
5800 ml/min
Total blood flow during strenuous
exercise 17,500 ml/min
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Figure 19.13

Velocity of Blood Flow- Perfusion Rates


Rate inversely
proportional to
Xsec area

Slow flow in
capillaries allows
for
gas/nutrient/waste
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exchange

Figure 19.13

Control of Arteriolar Smooth Muscle

Dilate
Constrict

CORRECTION TO ORIGINAL SLIDE!!!!


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Figure 19.14

Tissue Perfusion- Autoregulation

Regulation of blood flow thru tissues based on needs

via vasodilation of vessels

Short-term:

Metabolic in response to O2, nutrients;

Lesser response to: K+, H+, PGE, lactic acid levels

Myogenic- vascular smooth muscle responses to changes in BP

Long-Term:

Angiogenesis (production of more vessels) in response to:

Coronary vessel occludes

High altitudes

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Tissue Perfusion- Brain

In most tissues, response (autoregulation) is


controlled by < oxygen & > waste materials

In brain:

< pH, > CO2 = vasodilation; not as sensitive to


< O2

Myogenic controls:

vasodilate during < BP

Vasoconstrict during > BP

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Tissue Perfusion : Lungs

In lungs:

Short pathway

Arteries/arterioles thin-walled, large lumens

Lower arterial pressure (24/8 mm Hg vs 120/80 mm Hg)


Autoregulation opposite of that in most tissues

< O2 , vasoconstriction

> O2 , vasodilation

Allows for proper oxygen loading in the lungs

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Capillary Exchange of Respiratory Gases and


Nutrients

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Figure 19.15.2

Capillary Exchange: Fluid Movements

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP): all the forces acting on a capillary bed

NFP = (HPc HPif) (OPc OPif)

HPc Capillary hydrostatic pressure- pressure of blood against the


capillary walls (fluid inside to
outside)

HPif Interstitial fluid Hydrostatic pressure

OPc Capillary Oncotic pressure- osmotic pressure (fluid outside to


inside)

OPif Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure

If NFP high, then HP > OP & fluid moves out of capillaries

If NFP low, then HP < OP & fluid moves into capillaries

At the arterial end of a bed, hydrostatic forces dominate (fluids flow out); At
venous end, oncotic forces dominate (fluids move in)

InterActive Physiology : Autoregulation and Capillary Dynamics, pages 337

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Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

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Figure 19.16

Circulatory Shock

Circulatory shock any condition in which blood


vessels are inadequately filled and blood cannot
circulate normally

Results in inadequate blood flow to meet tissue


needs

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Circulatory Shock

Three types include:

Hypovolemic shock results from large-scale


blood loss

Vascular shock poor circulation resulting from


extreme vasodilation

Cardiogenic shock the heart cannot sustain


adequate circulation

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Hypovolemic shockcompensated

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Figure 19.17

Circulatory Pathways

Two distinct circulations


1. Pulmonary circulation short loop that runs from
the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
2. Systemic circulation routes blood through a
long loop to all parts of the body and returns to the
heart

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Differences Between Arteries and Veins

Arteries

Veins

Delivery

Blood pumped from heart


into single systemic artery
the aorta

Blood returns via superior and


interior venae cavae and drains
heart via the coronary sinus

Location

Deep, and protected by


tissue

Both deep and superficial

Pathways

Fair, clear, and defined

Convergent interconnections

Supply/drainage

Predictable supply

Dural sinuses and hepatic portal


circulation

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Developmental Aspects

The endothelial lining of blood vessels arises from


mesodermal cells, which collect in blood islands

Blood islands form rudimentary vascular tubes


through which the heart pumps blood by the fourth
week of development

Fetal shunts (foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus)


bypass nonfunctional lungs

The ductus venosus bypasses the liver

The umbilical vein and arteries circulate blood to


and from the placenta

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Developmental Aspects

Blood vessels are trouble-free during youth

Vessel formation occurs:

As needed to support body growth

For wound healing

To rebuild vessels lost during menstrual cycles

With aging, varicose veins, atherosclerosis, and


increased blood pressure may arise

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Pulmonary Circulation

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Figure 19.18b

Systemic Circulation

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Figure 19.19

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