MC

Kroeber and Kluckhohon have cited 164 different

definitions of culture. A.L.Kroeber & C.Kluckhohon, (1952).

Culture a critical review of concepts and definitions papers of

Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard
University, vol. xivii, no.1

Culture is a wooly concept which has aroused

controversy and confusion among scholars as to
its precise meaning. M.H.Tayeb (2005). International Human
Resource Management, OUP

collective programming of mind based on a broad

tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over
others.

G.Hofstede (1980). Cultures Consequences: International Differences

Work-related Values, Beverly Hills, Sage Publications

in
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 Power Distance:

Degree to which less powerful members of a society

accept and expect power is distributed unequally.
Individualism-Collectivism: individuals expected to take care of only
themselves and immediate families or is there a tightly-knit social framework in
which a person can expect the in-group to look after
Masculinity/Femininity (Tough/Tender): mas: preference for achievement,
assertiveness, material rewards; fem: preference for cooperation, modesty,
caring for the weak, quality of life.
Uncertainty Avoidance: Degree to which people feel uncomfortable with
uncertainty and ambiguity and create institutions and rules to try to avoid them.
Time Orientation: Societys prioritization on link with past and challenges of
present and future. Normative vs pragmatic.
Indulgence vs Restraint: Allowing relatively free gratification of basic drives
to enjoy life; suppression of gratification of needs and regulating by means of
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strict social norms.

Characteristics of Culture
Learned : not inherited; acquired by learning
Shared: not specific to single individual
Trans-generational: cumulative and passed on
Symbolic: one thing representing another
Patterned: integrated; changing one pt affects ors
Adaptive: subject to change; not genetically driven

Constituents of Culture

Value System

Norms

Language

Aesthetics

Tradition and Custom

Religion
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Value System

based on shared assumption

regarding good/bad, right/wrong, important/unimportant

country values affects business behavior;

Examples:
US managers emphasize profit, Japs, size/growth
social competition discouraged in China; no aggressive ad
P&G Camay ad comparing woman to porcelain doll failed in
Japan Camay ad showing man walking onto bathing wife also failed

tend to change over time

Japanese emphasis on life-long employment changing considerably

Norms
Guidelines or social rules that prescribe appropriate behavior
international managers should be able to differentiate between what is
acceptable and not and familiarize with cultural tolerance

Cultural imperatives
norms that must be followed and must be avoided; examples:
relationship building may be precondition to successful business
prolonged eye contact offensive in Japan
strong eye contact essential in Middle East

Cultural exclusives

customs appropriate for locals but others expected not to participate

Cultural adiaphora
customs optional for foreigners to participate
symbolic bowing in Japan; presence at an event as onlooker
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