Digital Communication

Systems
Lecture-3, Prof. Dr.
Habibullah
Jamal
Under Graduate,
Spring 2008

Baseband Demodulation/Detection

In case of baseband signaling, the received signal sis already in pulse-like form. Why is then is demodulator
required?

Arriving baseband pulses are not in the form of ideal pulse shapes, each one occupying its own symbol interval.

The channel (as well as any filtering at the transmitter) causes intersymbol interference (ISI).

Channel noise is another reason that may cause bit error is channel noise.

Effect of Channel

Figure 1.16 (a) Ideal pulse. (b) Magnitude spectrum of the ideal
pulse.
6

Figure 1.17 Three examples of filtering an ideal pulse. (a) Example

1: Good-fidelity output. (b) Example 2: Good-recognition output. (c)
Example3: Poor-recognition output.
7

Effect of Noise
2
1
0
-1
-2

10

12

14

16

18

20

10

12

14

16

18

20

10

12

14

16

18

20

2
1
0
-1
-2
2
1
0
-1
-2

3.1.2 Demodulation and Detection

AWGN

DEMODULATE & SAMPLE

RECEIVED
WAVEFORM
TRANSMITTED
WAVEFORM

FREQUENCY
DOWN
CONVERSION
FOR
BANDPASS
SIGNALS

RECEIVING
FILTER

DETECT
SAMPLE
at t = T

EQUALIZING
FILTER

THRESHOLD
COMPARISON

COMPENSATION
FOR CHANNEL
INDUCED ISI

MESSAGE
SYMBOL
OR
CHANNEL
SYMBOL

OPTIONAL
ESSENTIAL

Figure 3.1: Two basic steps in the demodulation/detection of digital signals

The

digital receiver performs two basic functions:

Demodulation, to recover a waveform to be sampled at t = nT.

Detection, decision-making process of selecting possible digital symbol

3.2 Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian

Noise

For any binary channel, the transmitted signal over a symbol interval
(0,T) is:

s1 (t ) 0 t T
si (t )
s2 (t ) 0 t T

for a binary 1
for a binary 0

The received signal r(t) degraded by noise n(t) and possibly

degraded by the impulse response of the channel hc(t), is

r (t ) si (t ) * hc (t ) n(t )

i 1,2

(3.1)

Where n(t) is assumed to be zero mean AWGN process

For ideal distortionless channel where hc(t) is an impulse function

and convolution with hc(t) produces no degradation, r(t) can be
represented as:
r (t ) si (t ) n(t ) i 1,2
0t T
(3.2)
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3.2 Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian

Noise

The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts

Filter
Reduces the effect of noise (as well as Tx induced ISI)
The output of the filter is sampled at t=T.This reduces the received
signal to a single variable z(T) called the test statistics

Detector (or decision circuit)

Compares the z(T) to some threshold level 0 , i.e.,

z(T )

H1

H2

where H1 and H2 are the two

possible binary hypothesis
11

Receiver Functionality
The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two parts:
1.
Waveform-to-sample transformation (Blue Block)

Demodulator followed by a sampler

At the end of each symbol duration T, predetection point yields a
sample z(T), called test statistic
(3.3)
z (T ) a (T ) n (T ) i 1, 2
i

Where ai(T) is the desired signal component,

and no(T) is the noise component
2.

Detection of symbol

Assume that input noise is a Gaussian random process and

receiving filter is linear

p (n0 )

1 n0

exp
2
2 0
2

(3.4)

12

p ( z | s1 )

Then output is another Gaussian random process

1 z a1
exp

2
2 0

1
1 z a2
p ( z | s2 )
exp

0 2
2 0

Where 0 2 is the noise variance

The ratio of instantaneous signal power to average noise power ,

(S/N)T, at a time t=T, out of the sampler is:

ai2

02

(3.45)

Need to achieve maximum (S/N)T

13

3.2.2 The Matched Filter

Objective: To maximizes (S/N)T

Expressing signal ai(t) at filter output in terms of filter transfer

function H(f) (Inverse Fourier transform of the product H(f)S(f)).

(3.46)
a (t )
H ( f ) S ( f ) e j 2ft df

where S(f) is the Fourier transform of input signal s(t)

Output noise power can be expressed as:

N0

2
2
0

| H ( f ) |2 df

(3.47)

Expressing (S/N)T as:

H ( f ) S( f ) e

N0
2

j 2fT

df

| H ( f ) |2 df

(3.48)

14

Now according to Schwarzs Inequality:

f1 ( x) dx

f 2 ( x) dx

(3.49)

Equality holds if f1(x) = k f*2(x) where k is arbitrary constant and *

indicates complex conjugate
Associate H(f) with f1(x) and S(f) ej2 fT with f2(x) to get:

f1 ( x) f 2 ( x)dx

H ( f ) S ( f ) e j 2fT df H ( f ) df

S ( f ) df

(3.50)

Substitute in eq-3.48 to yield:

N0

S ( f ) df

(3.51)

15

Or

max

2E
N0

and energy E of the input signal s(t):

Thus (S/N)T depends on input signal energy

and power spectral density of noise and
NOT on the particular shape of the waveform

S
max

Equality for
N

function H0(f)
such that:

2E
N0

S ( f ) df

holds for optimum filter transfer

H ( f ) H 0 ( f ) kS * ( f ) e j 2fT

h(t ) 1 kS * ( f )e j 2fT

For real valued s(t):

ks (T t ) 0 t T
h(t )
else where
0

(3.54)
(3.55)

(3.56)
16

The impulse response of a filter producing maximum output signalto-noise ratio is the mirror image of message signal s(t), delayed by
symbol time duration T.
The filter designed is called a MATCHED FILTER

ks (T t ) 0 t T
h(t )
else where
0

Defined as:
a linear filter designed to provide the maximum
signal-to-noise power ratio at its output for a given
transmitted symbol waveform

17

3.2.3 Correlation realization of Matched filter

A filter that is matched to the waveform s(t), has an impulse

response

0t T
ks (T t )
h(t )
else where
0

h(t) is a delayed version of the mirror image of the original signal

waveform

Signal Waveform

Mirror image of signal

waveform

Impulse response of
matched filter
Figure 3.7
18

This is a causal system

Recall that a system is causal if before an excitation is applied at
time t = T, the response is zero for - < t < T
The signal waveform at the output of the matched filter is
t
(3.57)
z (t ) r (t ) * h(t ) r ( )h(t )d

Substituting h(t) to yield:

z (t )

r ( ) sT (t ) d

r ( ) sT t d

(3.58)

When t=T,

z (t )

r ( ) s ( )d
(3.59)
19

The function of the correlator and matched filter are the same

Compare (a) and (b)

From (a)

z (t )

r (t ) s (t ) dt
T

z (t ) t T z (T ) r ( ) s ( )d
0

20

From (b)
But

z '(t ) r (t )* h(t ) r ( )h(t )d r ( )h(t )d

h(t ) s(T t ) h(t ) s[T (t )] s(T t )

t

z ' (t ) r ( ) s ( T t )d
0

At the sampling instant t = T, we have

T

z '(t ) t T z '(T ) r ( ) s( T T )d r ( ) s( )d

This is the same result obtained in (a)

T

z ' (T ) r ( ) s ( ) d
0

Hence

z (T ) z ' (T )
21

Detection

Matched filter reduces the received signal to a single variable z(T), after
which the detection of symbol is carried out
The concept of maximum likelihood detector is based on Statistical
Decision Theory
It allows us to
formulate the decision rule that operates on the data
optimize the detection criterion

z(T )

H1

H2

0
22

Probabilities Review

P[s1], P[s2] a priori probabilities

These probabilities are known before transmission
P[z]

probability of the received sample

p(z|s1), p(z|s2)

conditional pdf of received signal z, conditioned on the class s i

P[s1|z], P[s2|z] a posteriori probabilities

After examining the sample, we make a refinement of our previous

knowledge
P[s1|s2], P[s2|s1]

wrong decision (error)

P[s1|s1], P[s2|s2]

correct decision

23

How to Choose the threshold?

Maximum Likelihood Ratio test and Maximum a posteriori (MAP)

criterion:
If

else

Problem is that a posteriori probabilities are not known.

Solution: Use Bays theorem:

p(s1 | z) p(s2 | z) H1

p(s2 | z) p(s1 | z) H 2

p( z | s )P(s )
i
i
p(s | z)
i
p( z)

p( z|s1)P(s1)
P( z)

H1

H2

H1

p( z|s2 )P(s2 )
p( z | s1)P(s1) p( z | s2 )P(s2 )
P( z)
H
2

24

MAP criterion:
L( z) p( z|s1 )
p( z|s2 )

H1

H2

P(s2 ) likelihood ratio test (LRT )

P(s1)

When the two signals, s1(t) and s2(t), are equally likely, i.e., P(s2) =
P(s1) = 0.5, then the decision rule becomes

L( z)

p( z|s1 )
p( z|s2 )

H1

1 max likelihood ratio test

H2

This is known as maximum likelihood ratio test because we are

selecting the hypothesis that corresponds to the signal with the
maximum likelihood.

In terms of the Bayes criterion, it implies that the cost of both types
of error is the same
25

Substituting the pdfs

H1 :

H2 :

p( z | s1 )

p ( z | s2 )

0
1

1 z a1
exp

2
2 0

1 z a2
exp

2
2 0

1
1 z a1
H1
exp

0 2
2 0
p ( z | s1 )
L( z )
1
2
p ( z | s2 )

1
1 z a2
exp

H2
0 2
2 0
2

H1

H2

26

Hence:

exp

z ( a1 a2 )
( a12 a22 )

2
0
2 02

H1

H2

Taking the log of both sides will give

H1
z (a1 a2 ) (a12 a22 )
ln{L( z )}

0
2
2

0
2 0
H2
H1
z ( a1 a2 ) ( a12 a22 ) (a1 a2 )(a1 a2 )

2
2

0
2 0
2 02
H2
27

Hence

H1
02 (a1 a2 )(a1 a2 )
z

2 02 ( a1 a2 )
H2

H1
(a1 a2 )
z
0

2
H2

where z is the minimum error criterion and 0 is optimum threshold

For antipodal signal, s1(t) = - s2 (t) a1 = - a2

H1

z
0

H2
28

This

means that if received signal was positive, s1 (t) was sent,

else s2(t) was sent

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Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise

The output of the filtered sampled at T is a Gaussian random process

30

Matched Filter and Correlation

The impulse response of a filter producing maximum output

signal-to-noise ratio is the mirror image of message signal s(t),
delayed by symbol time duration T.
The filter designed is called a MATCHED FILTER and is given
by:

ks (T t ) 0 t T
h(t )
else where
0

31

Bays Decision Criterion and Maximum

Likelihood Detector

Hence

H1
(a1 a2 )
z
0

2
H2
where z is the minimum error criterion and 0 is optimum threshold

For antipodal signal, s1(t) = - s2 (t) a1 = - a2

H1

z
0

H2
32

Probability of Error

Error will occur if

s is sent s is received
1
2

P ( H 2 | s1 ) P(e | s1 )
P (e | s1 )

p ( z | s1 ) dz

s2 is sent s1 is received

P ( H1 | s2 ) P (e | s2 )
P ( e | s2 )

p( z | s2 ) dz
0

The total probability of error is the sum of the errors

2

PB P (e, si ) P (e | s1 ) P ( s1 ) P (e | s2 ) P ( s2 )
i 1

P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( s1 ) P ( H1 | s2 ) P ( s2 )
33

If signals are equally probable

PB P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( s1 ) P ( H1 | s2 ) P( s2 )
1
P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( H1 | s2 )
2

1
PB P( H 2 | s1 ) P ( H1 | s2 )
by Symmetry
2

P ( H 1 | s2 )

Numerically, PB is the area under the tail of either of the conditional

distributions p(z|s1) or p(z|s2) and is given by:

PB

P ( H1 | s2 ) dz
1

p ( z | s2 )dz

1 z a2
exp

dz

34

1 z a2

PB
exp

0
2

0 2

( z a2 )
u
0

( a1 a2 )
2 0

dz

u 2
1
exp du
2
2

The above equation cannot be evaluated in closed form (Q-function)

Hence,

a1 a2
PB Q
equation B.18
2 0

z 2
1
Q( z )
exp
z 2
2
35

Table for computing of Q-Functions

36

A vector View of Signals and Noise

N-dimensional orthonormal space characterized by N linearly

independent basis function {j(t)}, where:

if i j

if i j

i (t ) j (t ) dt

From a geometric point of view, each j(t) is mutually

perpendicular to each of the other {j(t)} for j not equal to k.

37

Representation of any set of M energy signals { si(t) } as a linear combinations of N orthogonal basis functions where N M.

si (t ) aij j (t )
j 1

0t T

i 1,2,..., M

where:

aij si (t ) j (t ) dt
0

i 1,2,..., M

j 1,2,..., N

38

Therefore we can represent set of M energy signals {si(t) } as:

si (ai1 , ai 2 , ....... aiN )

Waveform energy:

i 1,2,..., M

Ei s (t ) dt [ aij (t ) j (t )]
T

2
i

j 1

2
a
ij (t )
j 1

Representing (M=3) signals, with (N=2) orthonormal basis functions

39

Question 1: Why use orthormal functions?

In many situations N is much smaller than M. Requiring few

matched filters at the receiver.

Easy to calculate Euclidean distances

Compact representation for both baseband and passband

systems.

Question 2: How to calculate orthormal

functions?

Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure.

40

 Examples

41

 Examples (continued)

42

Generalized One Dimensional Signals

One Dimensional Signal Constellation

43

Binary Baseband Orthogonal Signals

Binary Antipodal Signals

Binary orthogonal Signals

44

Constellation Diagram

Is a method of representing the symbol states of modulated

bandpass signals in terms of their amplitude and phase
In other words, it is a geometric representation of signals
There are three types of binary signals:

Antipodal

Two signals are said to be antipodal if one signal is the

negative of the other s1 (t ) s0 (t )
The signal have equal energy with signal point on the real
line

ON-OFF

Are one dimensional signals either ON or OFF with

signaling points falling
on the real line
45

With OOK, there are just 2 symbol states to map onto the
constellation space

a(t) = 0 (no carrier amplitude, giving a point at the origin)

a(t) = A cos wct (giving a point on the positive horizontal axis

at a distance A from the origin)

Orthogonal

Requires a two dimensional geometric representation since

there are two linearly independent functions s1(t) and s0(t)

46

Typically, the horizontal axis is taken as a reference for symbols

that are Inphase with the carrier cos wct, and the vertical axis
represents the Quadrature carrier component, sin wct

Error Probability of Binary Signals

Recall:

a1 a0
PB Q
2 0

equation B.18

Where we have replaced a2 by a0.

47

To minimize PB, we need to maximize:

a1 a0
0
or

(a1 a0 ) 2
20

We have

(a1 a0 ) 2
Ed
2 Ed

20
N0 / 2 N0

Therefore,

a1 a0 1 (a1 a0 ) 2 1 2 Ed

2
2 0
2
0
2 N0

Ed
2 N0
48

The probability of bit error is given by:

Ed
2N0

PB Q

(3.63)

Ed s1 (t ) s0 (t ) dt
T

s1 (t ) dt s0 (t ) dt 2 s1 (t ) s0 (t )
T

49

The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:

2 Eb
N0

PB Q

The probability of bit error for orthogonal signals:

PB Q

Eb
N0

The probability of bit error for unipolar signals:

PB Q

Eb
2N 0

50

Bipolar signals require a factor of 2 increase in energy compared

to orthogonal signals
Since 10log102 = 3 dB, we say that bipolar signaling offers a 3 dB
better performance than orthogonal

51

Comparing BER Performance

For Eb / N 0 10dB
PB ,orthogonal 9.2 x10 2
PB ,antipodal 7.8x10 4

For the same received signal to noise ratio, antipodal provides lower
bit error rate than orthogonal
52

Relation Between SNR (S/N) and E b/N 0

In analog communication the figure of merit used is the average

signal power to average noise power ration or SNR.

In the previous few slides we have used the term E b/N0 in the bit
error calculations. How are the two related?

Eb can be written as STb and N0 is N/W. So we have:

Eb
STb
S W

N 0 N / W N Rb

Thus Eb/N0 can be thought of as normalized SNR.

Makes more sense when we have multi-level signaling.

Reading: Page 117 and 118.

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