Some Processing Examples Using Stress

PlasticDeformationtoFracture:Engineeringisinbetween
Stressstrainandmicroscopicfactorscanbeusedtoengineermaterials.

ProcessingandAvoidingFailures
Howcanweuseelastic,plastic,andfractureinformation?
Howdoestemperatureaffectengineeringconsiderations?

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

TypicalFormingOperations

forging

Wiredrawing

rolling

extrusion

Deepdrawing

die
Stretchforming

shearing

bending

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Recall: Complex State of Stress and Strain in

3-D linear elastic, isotropic Solid
Linear superposition of Hookes Law and Poisson effect
( width = axial) yield the 3 normal strain components:
X-direction:

1 = 1/E (2+3)/E

Y-direction:

2 = 2/E (1+3)/E

Z-direction:

3 = 3/E (2+1)/E

In x-direction, the total linear strain is:

1
1 {1 ( 2 3 )} or
E

1
{(1 )1 (1 2 3 )}
E

For uniaxial tension test, 1= 2=0, so 3= 3/E and 1= 2= 3,

and volume strain is V/V = 1+ 2+ 3= (1-2)3/E, as before.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ProcessingExample:Stress,Strain,andPoissonEffect
Drawing(likeinsodacans),Dyes,Pressing,Stamping,etc.

1
2

Forpressing,etc.,appliedstressis 1.
Zdirectionisfreesurface.

Whyis 3=0?
Whatis 2?
WallEffect:NOcontractionWhatisstrain?

Direction2:EquilibriumrequiresthatFwall=F2,so

2=0

Fromgeneralstraineq.: 2=0=2/E(1+3)/E.So2=1.

Direction1:1=1/E(2+3)/E.So1=1(12)/E.
Ingeneral,oneCANNOTIGNOREPOISSONEFFECTforStressesandStrains.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ProcessingExample:Stress,Strain,andPoissonEffect
1
2

So 3=0, 2=0,and 2= 1byPoissonEffect.

Straininxdirection: 1= 1(1 2)/E

ConsiderusingCu: E=110GPa,YS=69MPa,TS=200MPaand=0.34.
Forappliedstress 1< YS,thecombinedstrainsforlinearelasticbehaviorisOK.
Let 1=69MPa,so1=69MPa(10.342)/110GPa=0.00056
NoticethisislessthanifPoissonEffectwasignored,i.e.1=1/E=0.00063
Therefore,constraintduetowalldecreasesyieldstrain.

Whatisthestressduetowall: 2= 1=0.34(69MPa)=23.5MPa.
Whatisthestrainalongdir.3? 3=(1+) 1/E3iszero,notstrain!
FromPossionEffect

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

Show3=0.00029

D.D. Johnson 2004

ProcessingExample:Stress,Strain,andPoissonEffect
1
2

So 3=0,duetowall 2=0,andAppliedStressis 1
2= 1and 1= 1(1 2)/EbyPoissonEffect.

E=110GPa,YS=69MPa,UTS=200MPaand=0.34.

Ifmaterialyields,i.e. 1> YS,thereisplasticdeformationandvolume

isconserved(untilnecking),soV/V=0= 1+ 2+ 3,and=1/2.
Isthatcorrect? 0= 1+0+ 3=(1 2) 1/E(1+) 1/E
Trueonlyif=1/2,asexpected.
Duringuniformplasticdeformation 1= 3and 2=0.
Whatif 1= UTS=200MPa?

Equationsnolongervalid!Why?

Butyouhavecertainlyyieldedand 1= 3,soCudecreasesinxdir.and
extendsinzdir.(onetoone),andanyhigherstresscancausefracture.
Still,itisclearroughly, 2= 1=0.34(200MPa)=68MPa(noyieldinginydir.)
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stress

Temperaturechangesalwaysgenerateresidualstresses
thatcanleadtofracture,e.g.,ceramiccooledquickly.
Thermalshockinducedfracturehasbeenstudiedformorethan2200years!
ItisreportedthatHannibalsmilitaryengineersusedthermalshocktofracture
rocksthatblockedthepathoftheCarthaginianarmy(fromSpain)while
crossingtheAlpsin218B.C.
Hannibalgotwithin150kmofRome.HefinallyattackedRomein211only
aftertheCarthaginiangovernmentstoppedsendingreinforcements.Helost.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Linear and Volume Thermal Expansion

ThermalStrain: T=L/L0=(LfL0)/L0= TT= T(TfT0)
units=inversetemperature

L (T)

1 L
L T

seeTable19.1:
e.g.,Al:23.6x106/C;Al2O3:7.6x106/C;SiO2:0.4x106/C

VolumeThermalStrain:T=dV/V=VTdT
VT=(1/V)(V/T)3TforcubiccrystalssinceL3~V.

InInvarsystems,likeFe63Ni36,T~0nearR.T.(Invar=volumeInvariant)
Uraniumhas3differentT,with1beingnegative!
RubberhasT<0duetoentropyofpolymerchains(lotsofwiggleroom).
Tmaybediscontinuousatallotropicboundaries(e.g.,FCCBCC).
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

LinearThermalExpansion:GeneralTrend
1 L
L (T)
L T

ThermalExpansiondependsuponthebondstrengthsbetween
atomsandtheasymmetryinUvsr.

RecallGeneralTrendfromChapter2

Increasing Decreasing Higher Lower

bondstrengthatomicspacingelasticstiffnessT
(higherTmelt)
Forceramics,Tdecreaseswithbothbondstrengthand%covalent
bond.
Tishighestlowest
Organicsolids Metals Ceramics
(lowestbondstrength)
(highestbondstrength)

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Thermal Stress and Strains

Forlinearsuperposition:

Total= mechanical+ Thermal

Fornormalstrains,e.g.
Xdirection:1=1/E(2+3)/E+ TT
Ydirection:2=2/E(1+3)/E+ TT
Zdirection:3=3/E(2+1)/E+ TT
Iffreethermalexpansionispreventedbygeometricconstraint,
e.g.,Total=mechanical+Thermal=0alongaparticulardimension,
thenasufficientTwillcauselargestressestodevelop!
ThisishowHannibalsengineersthermallyshockedtherocks.
Howlargeislarge?
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Thermal Stress from Constraints

ConsideraRodin1D
e.g.,constrainedbeams,gaspipelines,sensors
TotalStrain:

Total= appliedstress+ Thermal

appliedstress=applied/EandThermal=Thermal/E
Constrainedrod: Total= appliedstress+ Thermal=0 Why?
So,appliedstress=Thermal=TTandapplied=TTE
Unconstrainedrod:Total=thermal

Why?

So,Thermal=TTandThermal=TTE
Whyarepipesusuallyburied?
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ExampleThermalStresswithConstraints:Alumina
ConsideraRodin1D10cmrodofAlumina(Al2O3)
99.8%densedecreasesfrom200C0C.
E=385GPa,UTS=205MPaandT=6.7x106/C
(a)Whatischangeinlengthifunconstrained?
Expectcontractionsincecooled. Thermal=L/L0=T(TfT0).

L=T(TfT0)L0=(6.7x106/C)(0200)C(10cm)
=0.0134cm(0.134%)
contraction!

(b)Ifrodisconstrained(thermalstresses),whatis wall?
Total=appliedstress+Thermal=0.Or,wall=Thermal
Therefore,wall=Thermal=TTE=(6.7x106/C)(200C)(385GPa)
wall=516MPa
Doesrodbreak?
Itistensile,i.e.aluminawantstocontract.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ExampleThermalStresswithConstraints:Alumina
ConsideraRodin1D10cmrodofAlumina(Al2O3)
99.8%densedecreasesfrom200C0C.
E=385GPa,UTS=205MPaandT=6.7x106/C
(c)Whatismaximumtemperaturechangesoasnottofracturerod?
Fracturewilloccurfor> UTS.Tonotfracture,itmustbenolarger.
Thatis,

Thermal= TTE= UTS.

Solving

T=(205MPa)/[(6.7x106/C)(385GPa)]=79.5C

Recap:T=79.5Cproduces205MPaofstress,and200Cproduces516MPa!
Ingeneral,thereisaTcapableoffracturingtherod.
TissmallerthesmallertheUTSor TorthelargertheE.(asinrocks)
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ThermalStresswithConstraints:SafetyGlass
Considera2DSheetofGlass
beingrolledoutoffurnace

3
blowing
coolair

Surfacesofsheetarecooled(Tf<T0)rapidlybyblowingairasitisrolled
out.
Freesurfacehasnoappliedstress: 3=0.
SurfacelayerwillreachTfquickly,buttotalstrainsinxyplanearezero
becausematerialdoesnothavetimetoadjusttemperature,total1=total2=0.
ThermalStrainsRequired: total1=0= 1/E( 2+ 3)/E+ TT
ThermalStressesCreated:( 1 2)/E= T(TfT0) (and1=2)
So,forthisplanarstresscase, 1= 2= T(TfT0)E/(1)
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

Example:2DSheetofSodalimeglass
3
blowing
coolair

ForSodalimeglass:T=9.6x106/C,E=69GPa,=0.23,UTS=69MPa
Fora400Cdecreaseinsurfacetemperature
1= 2= T(TfT0)E/(1)
=(80)(9.6x106/C)(69GPa)/(0.77)=34.4MPa(tension)
Wheredoesstoredenergygo?
WhyisnoYSreportedforSodalimeglass?

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ProcessDesign:UseCRSSandMax.Shearon450planes
max
mid

min

Consider3Daxialstressstate
Recallthatnormalstressesproduceshear!
Plasticdeformation(yielding)dueto
shearstresseswithmaximumon450planes.
Candevelopanapproximateestimatethe
MinimumShearStressCriterion
fromknowingjustnormalstresses.
YS=( max min)> CRSS

Nowwecanpredictinengineeringapplicationyielding,justfrominfo.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

PureShearFromOnlyAxialStresses.How?
Consider2Dstressstate:F1=+10N(tensile)=F2(compressive)
A=1mm2

Stresses: 2=F2/A=10MPa= 1

F2
y

Normalstresson450Plane(A45=2A):
F2,y+F1,y=0
F1

ShearStresseson450Plane(A45=2A):
F2,x=10N/2andF1,x=10N/2

x=(F2,x+F1,x)/A45=10MPa.
PURESHEAR!

Increasingdeformationcausestrainandthinning

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

YieldingReachatCRSS:Shearon450planesamaximum
max
mid

Consider3Daxialstressstate
min

Shearstressesmaximumon450planes.
Maximumshearstress max=( max min)/2
CriticalResolvedShearStress: CRSS= YS/2
InitialYieldingwhen max= CRSS
OR
YS/2=( max min)/2
whichisapproximatelycorrectandcalledthe
MinimumShearStressCriterion

Nowwecanpredictinengineeringapplicationyielding,justfrominfo.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

AdvancedProcessingExample:RollingMillforCu
3

Shearplanes

2
Given:
AppliedtensileforceintheplaneofthesheetisF=0.22MN(xdirection).
SheetislubricatedsothatNOshearforcesact.
0.5mwide(ydirection),0.6cmthick(zdirection)
Knowns: 3mustbecompressivetogetdecreaseinzdimension.
YS=145MPaforCusheet.
Forrolling,theplasticdeformationoccursbyplanestrainsuchthatthereis
NOincreaseinthewidthofthesheet(ydirection).Thatis, 2=0.
Thisislikeshearingadeckofplayingcards:thewidthstrainiszero.

Wemusthaveyielding,so=1/2andvolumeismaintained.

DESIGNNEED:Whatappliedstressisrequiredtomakesheetyield,i.e. 3?
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004

ProcessingExample:RollingMillforCu(PressingtoYield)

A1

NOshearforcesact.YS=145MPaforCu
Notethat20duetoPoissonEffect.
A1=(0.5m)(6x103m)=3x103m2.
WithF1=0.22MN,
1=F/A=(0.22MN)/(3x103m2)=73.3MPa

Howare 2and 3related?ByPoissonEffect,aswewanttojust

yielding.
Duetoplanestrain: 2=0=[ 2( 1+ 3)]/E or 2=( 1+ 3)
Justatyielding=1/2,so: 2=( 1+ 3)/2=(73.3MPa+ 3)/2

Note: 1(max)> 2> 3(min)

YieldingatMaximumShearStressCriterion:( max min)/2> YS/2
or( 1 3)/2> YS/2 3=(14573.3)MPa=71.7MPa
>>Engineereddeformationisobtainedbyapplying(compressive)rolling
pressureof71.7MPatoinitiateyieldingtomakesheetcorrectthickness.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials
D.D. Johnson 2004

InRolling,InternalStressNormaltoWidthIsNotZero
Whyis 2=( 1+ 3)/2andNOT 2=0?

Ofcourse, 2=0atthefreesurface,butonlythere!
Rollingcreatesinternal3Dstressstate.

Butfor 2=0(planestrain), 2=( 1+ 3)/2internallyduetoPoisson

Effect.
Thisdependsonthewidthofsheetcomparedtootherdimension,ofcourse.
Mostlytheslipsystemsinxzplaneareinitiated,hence2=0(planestrain).

So, 2=0atsurfaceandrapidlybecomes( 1+ 3)/2inside.

Atyielding,V=0=1+2+3and=1/2. With 2=0, 1= 3.
Onlyusing2=(1+3)/2and=1/2is1=3instrainequations.
For 2=0, 2=( 1+ 3)/2=(73.371.7)/2MPa=0.8MPa~0MPa.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials
D.D. Johnson 2004
Butthisisnottrueingeneral,onlyforalmostpureshear.

RollingMaximumStressRelatedtoRollerSize
hisreductioninheightofsheet
pmax
disheightatmaximumpressure
onthesheet,whichisd~h0h
h0
risradiusofroller.

r
d

Canshowapproximately:pmax= YS(1+2(r/d)0.5(h/d)0.5)
Forrollerradiusaboutr~d,pmaxisnotvastlybiggerthanYS.

SMALLrollersbetterthanBIGroller.
Aluminumfoilusesprimaryrollersthediameterofapencil,
with18secondaryrollers!
Whytheextrarollers?Considersmallnessofrolleranddeformations.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

D.D. Johnson 2004