ANALISIS TERMODINAMIS PROSES ALI

R
Flow Processes (Proses-proses alir)

Ada 2 konsep fundamental untuk analisis prosesproses alir yaitu:

a. Neraca massa (continuity equation = persamaan
kontinuitas)

a. Continuity Equation

(aliran massa masuk) = (aliran massa

keluar)
(mi)masuk = (mi)keluar
(m1 + m2 + )masuk
= (m5 + m6 +
)keluar
m = massa/waktu
Bila tidak ada percabangan :
m1 = m2

(m)masuk = (m)keluar
(A v )masuk = (A v )keluar
Rapat massa
Luas
penampang

Kec. Aliran
(panjang/wakt
u)

Untuk incompressible fluid : tetap

(Av) masuk = (Av) keluar
Luas tampang saluran sama : A tetap
(v) masuk = (v) keluar

Incompressible fluid dan luas tampang

aliran sama
(v) masuk = (v) keluar
b. Hukum
Termodinamika I (flow processes)
Control
volume
P

V,U,
H

u1

u2

u2

Actual
velocity
profile

U1+ P1V1+(mg)1 + mv12+Q-Ws = U2+P2V2+

(mg)2 + mv22
atau;
H1 + (mg)1 + mv12 + Q-Ws = H2 + (mg)2 +
mv22

Hukum Bernoulli
P1V1+ mgh1 + mv12 Efriction -Ws = P2V2+ mgh2 +
mv22
Ketika fluida incompressible:

Potential
Head
Friction
Pressure
VelocityHead
Head
Head

Work Head

Beberapa Alat Steady-Flow Proses

Gambar berikut menjelaskan beberapa peralatan
yang dioperasikan pada kondisi-kondisi khusus seperti
steady-state, steady-flow control volumes.

Nozzles and Diffusers

V1

V2 V1

V1

V2 V1

For flow through nozzles, the heat transfer, work, and potential energy are
normally neglected, and nozzles have one entrance and one exit. The
conservation of energy becomes

Solving forV2

2
V2 2(h1 h2 ) V1

Example 5-4
Steam at 0.4 MPa, 300oC, enters an adiabatic nozzle with a low velocity
and leaves at 0.2 MPa with a quality of 90%. Find the exit velocity, in m/s.
Control Volume: The nozzle
Property Relation: Steam tables
Process: Assume adiabatic, steady-flow
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:
For one entrance, one exit, the conservation of mass becomes

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m
8

Control Volume: The turbine.

Property Relation: Assume air is an ideal gas and use ideal gas relations.
Process: Steady-state, steady-flow, adiabatic process
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m

Conservation of energy:

According to the sketched control volume, mass and work cross the control
surface. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting the process
is adiabatic, we have
9

Conservation of energy:
According to the sketched control volume, mass crosses the control
surface, but no work or heat transfer crosses the control surface.
Neglecting the potential energies, we have

eglecting the inlet kinetic energy, the exit velocity is

V2 2(h1 h2 )

ow, we need to find the enthalpies from the steam tables.

Superheated

kJ

T1 300o C h1 3067.1
kg
P1 0.4 MPa

Saturated Mix.

P2 0.2 MPa
x2 0.90

h2

At 0.2 MPa hf = 504.7 kJ/kg and hfg = 2201.6 kJ/kg.

10

h2 = h f + x2 h fg
= 504.7 + (0.90)(2201.6) = 2486.1

kJ
kg

r
kJ 1000 m 2 / s 2
V2 2(3067.1 2486.1)
kg kJ / kg

Turbines
(Expander)

m
1078.0
s

If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies as fluid flows

through an adiabatic turbine having one entrance and one exit, the
conservation of mass and the steady-state, steady-flow first law becomes
11

Example 5-5
High pressure air at 1300 K flows into an aircraft gas turbine and
undergoes a steady-state, steady-flow, adiabatic process to the turbine
exit at 660 K. Calculate the work done per unit mass of air flowing
through the turbine when
(a) Temperature-dependent data are used.
(b) Cp,ave at the average temperature is used.
(c) Cp at 300 K is used.

12

Control Volume: The turbine.

Property Relation: Assume air is an ideal gas and use ideal gas relations.
Process: Steady-state, steady-flow, adiabatic process
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m

Conservation of energy:

According to the sketched control volume, mass and work cross the control
surface. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting the process
is adiabatic, we have
13

0 m 1h1 W out m 2 h2
W out m (h1 h2 )

The work done by the air per unit mass flow is

wout

W out

h1 h2
m

Notice that the work done by a fluid flowing through a turbine is equal to
the enthalpy decrease of the fluid.
(a) Using the air tables
at T1 = 1300 K, h1 = 1395.97 kJ/kg
at T2 = 660 K, h2 = 670.47 kJ/kg

wout h1 h2
(1395.97 670.47)
7255
.

kJ
kg

kJ
kg

14

(b) Using Table A-2(c) at Tave = 980 K, Cp, ave = 1.138 kJ/kgK

wout h1 h2 C p , ave (T1 T2 )

kJ
1138
.
(1300 660) K
kg K
kJ
728.3
kg

(c) Using Table A-2(a) at T = 300 K, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K

wout h1 h2 C p (T1 T2 )
kJ
(1300 660) K
kg K
kJ
643.2
kg
1005
.

ompressors and fans

15

Compressors and fans are essentially the same devices. However,

compressors operate over larger pressure ratios than fans. If we neglect
the changes in kinetic and potential energies as fluid flows through an
adiabatic compressor having one entrance and one exit, the steady-state,
steady-flow first law or the conservation of energy equation becomes

Example 5-6
Nitrogen gas is compressed in a steady-state, steady-flow, adiabatic
process from 0.1 MPa, 25oC. During the compression process the
temperature becomes 125oC. If the mass flow rate is 0.2 kg/s, determine
the work done on the nitrogen, in kW.

16

Control Volume: The compressor (see the compressor sketched above)

Property Relation: Assume nitrogen is an ideal gas and use ideal gas
relations
Process: Adiabatic, steady-flow
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m

Conservation of energy:

According to the sketched control volume, mass and work cross the control
surface. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting the process
is adiabatic, we have for one entrance and one exit

0 m 1 (h1 0 0) ( W in ) m 2 (h2 0 0)
W in m (h2 h1 )

17

The work done on the nitrogen is related to the enthalpy rise of the
nitrogen as it flows through the compressor. The work done on the
nitrogen per unit mass flow is

W in
win
h2 h1
m

Assuming constant specific heats at 300 K from Table A-2(a), we write the
work as
win C p (T2 T1 )

kJ
(125 25) K
kg K
kJ
103.9
kg
1039
.

18

hrottling devices

Consider fluid flowing through a one-entrance, one-exit porous plug. The

fluid experiences a pressure drop as it flows through the plug. No net work
is done by the fluid. Assume the process is adiabatic and that the kinetic
and potential energies are neglected; then the conservation of mass and
energy equations become

19

This process is called a throttling process. What happens when an ideal

gas is throttled?

When throttling an ideal gas, the temperature does not change. We will
see later in Chapter 11 that the throttling process is an important process
in the refrigeration cycle.
A throttling device may be used to determine the enthalpy of saturated
steam. The steam is throttled from the pressure in the pipe to ambient
pressure in the calorimeter. The pressure drop is sufficient to superheat
the steam in the calorimeter. Thus, the temperature and pressure in the
calorimeter will specify the enthalpy of the steam in the pipe.

20

Example 5-7
One way to determine the quality of saturated steam is to throttle the
steam to a low enough pressure that it exists as a superheated vapor.
Saturated steam at 0.4 MPa is throttled to 0.1 MPa, 100oC. Determine the
quality of the steam at 0.4 MPa.
Throttling orifice
1

2
Control
Surfac
e

Control Volume: The throttle

Property Relation: The steam tables

Process: Steady-state, steady-flow, no work, no heat transfer, neglect

kinetic and potential energies, one entrance, one exit
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m
21

Conservation of energy:

According to the sketched control volume, mass crosses the control

surface. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting the process
is adiabatic with no work, we have for one entrance and one exit

0 m 1 (h1 0 0) 0 m 2 (h2 0 0)
m 1h1 m 2 h2
h1 h2
T2 100o C

h2 2675.8

P2 0.1 MPa

kJ
kg

Therefore,

h1 h2 2675.8

kJ
kg

h f x1h fg @ P 0.4 MPa

1

22

x1

h1 h f
h fg

2675.8 604.66

2133.4
0.971
Mixing chambers
The mixing of two fluids occurs frequently in engineering applications. The
section where the mixing process takes place is called a mixing chamber.
The ordinary shower is an example of a mixing chamber.

23

Example 5-8
Steam at 0.2 MPa, 300oC, enters a mixing chamber and is mixed with cold
water at 20oC, 0.2 MPa, to produce 20 kg/s of saturated liquid water at 0.2
MPa. What are the required steam and cold water flow rates?
Steam 1
Mixing

chambe
r

Cold water
2

Control Volume: The mixing chamber

Saturated water
3
Control
surfac
e

Property Relation: Steam tables

Process: Assume steady-flow, adiabatic mixing, with no work
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

in

m out

m 1 m 2 m 3
m 2 m 3 m 1
24

Conservation of energy:

According to the sketched control volume, mass crosses the control

surface. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies and noting the process
is adiabatic with no work, we have for two entrances and one exit

m 1h1 m 2 h2 m 3h3
m 1h1 (m 3 m 1 )h2 m 3h3
m 1 (h1 h2 ) m 3 (h3 h2 )
(h h )
m 1 m 3 3 2
(h1 h2 )

Now, we use the steam tables to find the enthalpies:

T1 300o C
P1 0.2 MPa

h1 3072.1

kJ
kg

25

T2 20o C

h2 h f @ 20o C 83.91

P2 0.2 MPa

m&1 m&3

kJ
kg

(h3 h2 )
(h1 h2 )

kg (504.7 83.91)kJ / kg
s (3072.1 83.91)kJ / kg
kg
2.82
s
m 2 m 3 m 1
20

(20 2.82)
17.18

kg
s

kg
s

26

Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are normally well-insulated devices that allow energy
exchange between hot and cold fluids without mixing the fluids. The
pumps, fans, and blowers causing the fluids to flow across the control
surface are normally located outside the control surface.

27

Example 5-9
Air is heated in a heat exchanger by hot water. The water enters the heat
exchanger at 45oC and experiences a 20oC drop in temperature. As the
air passes through the heat exchanger, its temperature is increased by
25oC. Determine the ratio of mass flow rate of the air to mass flow rate of
the water.
1
Air
inlet

1
Water
inlet

Control
surfac
e

2
Air exit

2
Water
exit

ontrol Volume: The heat exchanger

roperty Relation: Air: ideal gas relations

Water: steam tables or incompressible liquid results

rocess: Assume adiabatic, steady-flow

28

Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:
0(steady)

m in m out m system

( kg / s)

or two entrances, two exits, the conservation of mass becomes

m in m out
m air ,1 m w ,1 m air , 2 m w , 2
For two fluid streams that exchange energy but do not mix, it is better to
conserve the mass for the fluid streams separately.

m air ,1 m air , 2 m air

m w ,1 m w , 2 m w
Conservation of energy:
According to the sketched control volume, mass crosses the control
surface, but no work or heat transfer crosses the control surface.
Neglecting the kinetic and potential energies, we have for steady-flo
29

E in E out

Rate of net energy transfer

by heat, work, and mass

0(steady)

E system

( kW )

Rate change in internal, kinetic,

potential, etc., energies

E in E out
m air ,1hair ,1 m w ,1hw ,1 m air , 2 hair , 2 m w , 2 hw , 2
m air (hair ,1 hair , 2 ) m w (hw , 2 hw ,1 )
(hw , 2 hw ,1 )
m air

m w (hair ,1 hair , 2 )

We assume that the air has constant specific heats at 300 K, Table A-2(a)
(we don't know the actual temperatures, just the temperature difference).
Because we know the initial and final temperatures for the water, we can
use either the incompressible fluid result or the steam tables for its
properties.
Using the incompressible fluid approach for the water, Table A-3,
Cp, w = 4.18 kJ/kgK.

30

C p , w (Tw,2 Tw,1 )
m&air

m&w C p , air (Tair ,1 Tair , 2 )

kJ
20 K
kg w K

kJ
1.005
25 K
kg air K
4.18

3.33

kg air / s
kg w / s

A second solution to this problem is obtained by determining the heat

transfer rate from the hot water and noting that this is the heat transfer
rate to the air. Considering each fluid separately for steady-flow, one
entrance, and one exit, and neglecting the kinetic and potential energies,
the first law, or conservation of energy, equations become

E&in E&out

air : m&air ,1hair ,1 Q&in , air m&air ,2 hair , 2

water : m&w,1hw,1 Q&out , w m&w,2 hw, 2
Q&in , air Q&out , w

31

Pipe and duct flow

The flow of fluids through pipes and ducts is often a steady-state, steadyflow process. We normally neglect the kinetic and potential energies;
however, depending on the flow situation, the work and heat transfer may
or may not be zero.
Example 5-10
In a simple steam power plant, steam leaves a boiler at 3 MPa, 600oC, and
enters a turbine at 2 MPa, 500oC. Determine the in-line heat transfer from
the steam per kilogram mass flowing in the pipe between the boiler and
the turbine.
Q out
1
Steam
from
boiler

Steam
to
turbine
2
Control
surfac
e

Control Volume: Pipe section in which the heat loss occurs.

Property Relation: Steam tables
Process: Steady-flow
Conservation Principles:

32

Conservation of mass:

0(steady)

m in mout msystem

(kg / s )

or one entrance, one exit, the conservation of mass becomes

m in m out
m 1 m 2 m
Conservation of energy:
According to the sketched control volume, heat transfer and mass cross
the control surface, but no work crosses the control surface. Neglecting
the kinetic and potential energies, we have for steady-flow

E&in E&out
1 4 2 43

0(steady)

Rate of net energy transfer

by heat, work, and mass

E&system
14 2 43

(kW )

Rate change in internal, kinetic,

potential, etc., energies

e determine the heat transfer rate per unit mass of flowing steam as

m 1h1 m 2 h 2 Q out
Q out m (h1 h2 )
qout

Q out

h1 h2
m

33

e use the steam tables to determine the enthalpies at the two states as
T1 600o C

h1 3682.8

P1 3 MPa

T2 500o C

kJ
kg

h2 3468.3

P2 2 MPa

kJ
kg

qout h1 h2
(3682.8 3468.3)
214.5

kJ
kg

kJ
kg

Example 5-11
Air at 100oC, 0.15 MPa, 40 m/s, flows through a converging duct with a
mass flow rate of 0.2 kg/s. The air leaves the duct at 0.1 MPa, 113.6 m/s.
The exit-to-inlet duct area ratio is 0.5. Find the required rate of heat
transfer to the air when no work is done by the air.

34

Q in
Air exit
2

1
Air inlet

Control
surfac
e

Control Volume: The converging duct

Property Relation: Assume air is an ideal gas and use ideal gas relations
Process: Steady-flow
Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

0(steady)

m in m out m system

( kg / s)

or one entrance, one exit, the conservation of mass becomes

m in m out
m 1 m 2 m

35

Conservation of energy:
According to the sketched control volume, heat transfer and mass cross
the control surface, but no work crosses the control surface. Here keep the
kinetic energy and still neglect the potential energies, we have for steadystate, steady-flow process

E&in E&out
1 4 2 43

Rate of net energy transfer

by heat, work, and mass

0(steady)

E&system
14 2 43

(kW )

Rate change in internal, kinetic,

potential, etc., energies

r
In the first law equation, the following are known: P1, T1 (and
V1 V2
h1),
,
,
, and A2/A1. The unknowns are
, and h2 (or
T2).
Qin
the first law and the conservation of mass equation to solve for
unknowns.

m&

We use
the two

36

m&1 m&2

Solving for T2

(kg / s )

1 r
1 r
V1 A1 V2 A2
v1
v2
r
r
P1
P2
V1 A1
V2 A2
RT1
RT2

Assuming Cp = constant, h2 - h1 = Cp(T2 - T1)

37

Looks like we made the wrong assumption for the direction of the heat
transfer. The heat is really leaving the flow duct. (What type of device is
this anyway?)
Q out Q in 2.87 kW
Liquid pumps

The work required when pumping an incompressible liquid in an adiabatic

steady-state, steady-flow process is given by

The enthalpy difference can be written as

h2 h1 (u2 u1 ) ( Pv ) 2 ( Pv )1

38

For incompressible liquids we assume that the density and specific volume
are constant. The pumping process for an incompressible liquid is
essentially isothermal, and the internal energy change is approximately
zero (we will see this more clearly after introducing the second law). Thus,
the enthalpy difference reduces to the difference in the pressure-specific
volume products. Since v2 = v1 = v the work input to the pump becomes

W is the net work done by the control volume, and it is noted that work is
W pump;
W in , pumpso,
input to the
.

we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the pump work become

( W in , pump ) m v ( P2 P1 )

( kW )

W in , pump m v ( P2 P1 )
We use this result to calculate the work supplied to boiler feedwater
pumps in steam power plants.
If we apply the above energy balance to a pipe section that has no
(
W&pump
0
), we obtain.

39

r2 r2

V
V1
W& m& v( P2 P1 ) 2
g ( z2 z1 )
2

r2 r2

V V1
0 m& v( P2 P1 ) 2
g ( z2 z1 )
2

(kW )

r
r
P2 V22
P1 V12

z2
z1
2g
2g

This last equation is the famous Bernoullis equation for frictionless,

incompressible fluid flow through a pipe.
Uniform-State, Uniform-Flow Problems
During unsteady energy transfer to or from open systems or control
volumes, the system may have a change in the stored energy and mass.
Several unsteady thermodynamic problems may be treated as uniformstate, uniform-flow problems. The assumptions for uniform-state, uniformflow are

40

The process takes place over a specified time period.

The state of the mass within the control volume is uniform at any instant
of time but may vary with time.
The state of mass crossing the control surface is uniform and steady. The
mass flow may be different at different control surface locations.
To find the amount of mass crossing the control surface at a given location,
we integrate the mass flow rate over the time period.

he change in mass of the control volume in the time period is

he uniform-state, uniform-flow conservation of mass becomes

m m
i

(m2 m1 ) CV

e change in internal energy for the control volume during the time period is

41

e energy crossing the control surface with the mass in the time period is

where
j =i, for inlets
e, for exits

he first law for uniform-state, uniform-flow becomes

When the kinetic and potential energy changes associated with the control
volume and the fluid streams are negligible, it simplifies to

42

Example 5-12
Consider an evacuated, insulated, rigid tank connected through a closed
valve to a high-pressure line. The valve is opened and the tank is filled
with the fluid in the line. If the fluid is an ideal gas, determine the final
temperature in the tank when the tank pressure equals that of the line.

Control Volume: The tank

Property Relation: Ideal gas relations
Process: Assume uniform-state, uniform-flow

43

Conservation Principles:
Conservation of mass:

m m
i

(m2 m1 ) CV

r, for one entrance, no exit, and initial mass of zero, this becomes

mi (m2 ) CV
Conservation of energy:
For an insulated tank Q is zero and for a rigid tank with no shaft work W is
zero. For a one-inlet mass stream and no-exit mass stream and neglecting
changes in kinetic and potential energies, the uniform-state, uniform-flow
conservation of energy reduces to

or

mi hi (m2 u2 ) CV
hi u2
ui Pv
i i u2
u2 ui Pv
i i
Cv (T2 Ti ) Pv
i i

44

Cv (T2 Ti ) RTi
T2

Cp
Cv R
Ti
Ti
Cv
Cv

kTi
If the fluid is air, k = 1.4 and the absolute temperature in the tank at the
final state is 40 percent higher than the fluid absolute temperature in the
supply line. The internal energy in the full tank differs from the internal
energy of the supply line by the amount of flow work done to push the
fluid from the line into the tank.
Extra Assignment
Rework the above problem for a 10 m3 tank initially open to the
atmosphere at 25oC and being filled from an air supply line at 90 psig,
25oC, until the pressure inside the tank is 70 psig.

45

Pumps
Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The sam
e equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to ad
iabatic compressors.
For an isentropic process:
P
Ws (isentropic ) H S VdP
P
2

With
dH C P dT V (1 T )dP
For liquid,

dT
dS C P
VdP
T

Ws (isentropic ) H S V ( P2 P1 )
H C P T V (1 T )P
S C P ln

T2
VP
T1

Water at 45C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged

at a pressure of 8600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75.
Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water,
and the entropy change of water.
The saturated liquid water at 45C:

kJ
cm3
6 1
C

4
.
178
V 1010
425 10
P
kg K
kg
K

Ws (isentropic ) H S V ( P2 P1 )
kPa cm3
kJ
Ws (isentropic ) 1010 (8600 10) 8.676 10
8.676
kg
kg
6

Ws (isentropic )
kJ
Ws
H 11.57

kg

H C P T V (1 T )P

T 0.97 K
T2
S C P ln VP
T1
S 0.0090

kJ
kg K