Respiratory System

Azis Beru Gani

2007

Respiratory System

Respiration
Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of
lungs
External respiration: Gas exchange
between air in lungs and blood
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the blood
Internal respiration: Gas exchange between
the blood and tissues
Cellular Respiration: The use of O2 to
produce ATP via Glycolysis, TCA cycle, &
ETS
3

Respiratory System Functions

Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood and carbon
dioxide leaves
Regulation of blood pH: Altered by changing blood
carbon dioxide levels Carbonic acid Buffer system
Sound production: Movement of air past vocal
folds makes sound and speech
Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne molecules
drawn into nasal cavity
Thermoregulation: Heating and cooling of body
Protection: Against microorganisms by preventing
entry and removing them
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Respiratory System Divisions

Upper tract
Nose, pharynx and
associated structures

Lower tract
Larynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs

Nasal Cavity and Pharynx

Nose and Pharynx

Pharynx

Nose
External nose
Nasal cavity
Functions

Passageway for air

Cleans the air
Humidifies, warms air
Smell
Along with paranasal
sinuses are
resonating chambers
for speech

Common opening for

digestive and
respiratory systems
Three regions
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

Larynx

Functions
Maintain an open passageway for air movement
Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed
material from moving into larynx
Vocal folds are primary source of sound production

Vocal Folds

Trachea

Insert Fig 23.5 all but b

Windpipe
Divides to form
Primary bronchi
Carina: Cough
reflex

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Tracheobronchial Tree
Non-Acinus -Conducting zone
Trachea to terminal bronchioles which is
ciliated for removal of debris, mucus lined
Passageway for air movement controlled by
smooth muscle at end of terminal bronchioles
Cartilage holds tube system open and smooth
muscle controls tube diameter

Acinus Portion - Respiratory zone

Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
Site for gas exchange Area the size of a
football field
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Tracheobronchial Tree

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Bronchioles and Alveoli

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Alveolus and Respiratory

Membrane

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Lungs

Two lungs: Principal organs of respiration

Right lung: Three lobes
Left lung: Two lobes

Divisions
Lobes, bronchopulmonary segments, lobules

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Thoracic Walls
Muscles of Respiration

16

Thoracic Volume

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Pleura

Pleural fluid produced by pleural membranes

Acts as lubricant
Helps hold parietal and visceral pleural
membranes together

18

Ventilation
Movement of air into and out of lungs via
negative pressure pump mechanism
Air moves from area of higher pressure
outside the lung to area of lower pressure
created in the thorax and lungs by
diaphram
Pressure is inversely related to volume in
that as pressure goes down lung volume
goes up
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Alveolar Pressure Changes

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Changing Alveolar Volume

Lung recoil
Causes alveoli to collapse resulting from
Elastic recoil and surface tension : Pneumothorax
Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse

Pleural pressure
Negative pressure can cause alveoli to
expand
Pneumothorax is an opening between
pleural cavity and air that causes a loss of
pleural pressure
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Normal Breathing Cycle

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Compliance
Measure of the ease with which lungs
and thorax expand
The greater the compliance, the easier it is
for a change in pressure to cause expansion
A lower-than-normal compliance means the
lungs and thorax are harder to expand
Conditions that decrease compliance
Pulmonary fibrosis
Pulmonary edema
Respiratory distress syndrome

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Pulmonary Volumes
Tidal volume
Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal inspiration
or expiration

Inspiratory reserve volume

Amount of air inspired forcefully after inspiration of normal
tidal volume

Expiratory reserve volume

Amount of air forcefully expired after expiration of normal
tidal volume

Residual volume
Volume of air remaining in respiratory passages and lungs
after the most forceful expiration

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Pulmonary Capacities
Inspiratory capacity
Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume

Functional residual capacity

Expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume

Vital capacity
Sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
expiratory reserve volume

Total lung capacity

Sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the
tidal volume and residual volume

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Spirometer and Lung

Volumes/Capacities

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Minute and Alveolar

Ventilation
Minute ventilation: Total amount of air moved
into and out of respiratory system per minute
Respiratory rate or frequency: Number of
breaths taken per minute
Anatomic dead space: Part of respiratory
system where gas exchange does not take
place
Alveolar ventilation: How much air per minute
enters the parts of the respiratory system in
which gas exchange takes place
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Physical Principles of Gas

Exchange
Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by each type of gas in a
mixture
Daltons law
Water vapor pressure

Diffusion of gases through liquids

Concentration of a gas in a liquid is determined by
its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient
Henrys law
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Physical Principles of Gas

Exchange
Diffusion of gases through the
respiratory membrane
Depends on membranes thickness, the diffusion
coefficient of gas, surface areas of membrane, partial
pressure of gases in alveoli and blood

Relationship between ventilation and

pulmonary capillary flow
Increased ventilation or increased pulmonary capillary
blood flow increases gas exchange
Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood returning
from lungs

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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Diffusion Gradients
Oxygen
Moves from alveoli into
blood. Blood is almost
completely saturated
with oxygen when it
leaves the capillary
P02 in blood decreases
because of mixing with
deoxygenated blood
Oxygen moves from
tissue capillaries into
the tissues

Carbon dioxide
Moves from tissues
into tissue capillaries
Moves from
pulmonary capillaries
into the alveoli

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Changes in Partial Pressures

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Hemoglobin and Oxygen

Transport
Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin (98.5%)
and is dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve shows
that hemoglobin is almost completely saturated
when P02 is 80 mm Hg or above. At lower partial
pressures, the hemoglobin releases oxygen.
A shift of the curve to the left because of an
increase in pH, a decrease in carbon dioxide, or
a decrease in temperature results in an increase
in the ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen
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Hemoglobin and Oxygen

Transport
A shift of the curve to the right because of a
decrease in pH, an increase in carbon dioxide, or
an increase in temperature results in a decrease
in the ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen
The substance 2.3-bisphosphoglycerate
increases the ability of hemoglobin to release
oxygen
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen
than does maternal
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Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve at Rest

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Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve during
Exercise

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Shifting the Curve

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Transport of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate
ions (70%) in combination with blood proteins
(23%) and in solution with plasma (7%)
Hemoglobin that has released oxygen binds
more readily to carbon dioxide than hemoglobin
that has oxygen bound to it (Haldane effect)
In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combines
with water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid
which dissociates to form bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions
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Transport of Carbon Dioxide

In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions move into RBCs and chloride
ions move out. Bicarbonate ions combine with
hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid. The
carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide
and water. The carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the RBCs.
Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowers blood
pH. The respiratory system regulates blood pH
by regulating plasma carbon dioxide levels
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Carbon Dioxide Transport

and Chloride Movement

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Respiratory Areas in
Brainstem
Medullary respiratory center
Dorsal groups stimulate the diaphragm
Ventral groups stimulate the intercostal and
abdominal muscles

Pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory group

Involved with switching between inspiration
and expiration

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Respiratory Structures in
Brainstem

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Rhythmic Ventilation
Starting inspiration
Medullary respiratory center neurons are continuously active
Center receives stimulation from receptors and simulation from
parts of brain concerned with voluntary respiratory movements and
emotion
Combined input from all sources causes action potentials to
stimulate respiratory muscles

Increasing inspiration
More and more neurons are activated

Stopping inspiration
Neurons stimulating also responsible for stopping inspiration and
receive input from pontine group and stretch receptors in lungs.
Inhibitory neurons activated and relaxation of respiratory muscles
results in expiration.

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Modification of Ventilation
Cerebral and limbic
system
Respiration can be
voluntarily controlled
and modified by
emotions

Chemical control
Carbon dioxide is
major regulator
Increase or decrease in
pH can stimulate
chemo- sensitive area,
causing a greater rate
and depth of respiration

Oxygen levels in blood

affect respiration when
a 50% or greater
decrease from normal
levels exists
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Modifying Respiration

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Regulation of Blood pH and

Gases

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Herring-Breuer Reflex
Limits the degree of inspiration and
prevents overinflation of the lungs
Infants
Reflex plays a role in regulating basic rhythm of
breathing and preventing overinflation of lungs

Adults
Reflex important only when tidal volume large as in
exercise

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Ventilation in Exercise
Ventilation increases abruptly
At onset of exercise
Movement of limbs has strong influence
Learned component

Ventilation increases gradually

After immediate increase, gradual increase
occurs (4-6 minutes)
Anaerobic threshold is highest level of exercise
without causing significant change in blood pH
If exceeded, lactic acid produced by skeletal muscles

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Effects of Aging
Vital capacity and maximum minute
ventilation decrease
Residual volume and dead space increase
Ability to remove mucus from respiratory
passageways decreases
Gas exchange across respiratory
membrane is reduced

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