by kidney

11.3 Osmoregulation in mammals

a.explain the process of ultrafiltration, reabsorption and
secretion in the formation of urine
b.explain the role of ADH and aldosterone, and the related
hormones in regulating water, sodium and potassium ions of
urine
c.explain the regulation of pH of tissue fluid.

Overview of kidney
functions

Regulation of blood ionic composition

Regulation of blood pH
Regulation of blood volume
Regulation of blood pressure
Maintenance of blood osmolarity
Production of hormones (calcitrol and
erythropoitin)
Regulation of blood glucose level
Excretion of wastes from metabolic reactions
and foreign substances (drugs or toxins)
Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Location = The kidneys are a pair of organs located in the

back of the abdomen

Structure of the kidney

Each kidney
contains around a
million units called
nephrons

STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS

Kidneys produced urine and
excreted it out from the body.
situated in the dorsal of the
abdomen.

Each kidney
-

has a cortex (outer) layer,

medulla (inner)
pelvis (opens into ureter)
consists of numerous tubular
unit called nephrons
- Each kidney consist of about
one million nephrons.
6

FUNCTIONAL UNIT :
NEPHRON

SECTIONAL DIAGRAM of KIDNEY

Proximal
convoluted tubule

Distal convoluted
tubule

FUNCTIONAL UNIT : A NEPHRON

Bowmann capsule
Glomerulus

Afferent
arteriole from
renal artery

Proximal convoluted tubule

Peritubular
capillaries

Efferent arteriole
from glomerulus

Distal convoluted
tubule

Distal convoluted
tubule

Branch of vein

Loop of
Henle

Descending
limb

Collecting
duct

Ascending
limb
Vasa
Recta

A Nephron

Each nephron consists of :

i - a Bowmans capsule which begins in the
cortex.
ii- continues to form the proximal
convoluted tubule which leads to the
medulla.
iii - form a U-shaped loop called loop of
Henle and leads on to form the
iii - distal convoluted tubule before opens
into
iv- a collecting duct.
v - In the Bowmans capsule is a little mass
of capillaries, arise from a branch of the
renal artery = glomerulus.
vi- capillaries leave the glomerulus to
surround the tubule before enter a branch
of the renal vein.
9

The role of kidney

1. As an excretory organ : (excretion)
produces urine in which certain products of
metabolism and excessive intake of certain chemicals /
toxic substances are excreted out of the body.
2. As an osmoregulatory organ : (osmoregulation)
it controls the regulation of the
i -- volume of water in the body
ii osmotic pressure

iii ions concentration

iv blood pH
Excretion: the removal of the metabolites that have exceeded a
critical concentration
Osmoregulation: control the regulation of the volume &
composition of body fluid. (salt and water)

10

1. URINE FORMATION
a) Ultrafiltration
b) Reabsorption / selective reabroption
c) Secretion
11

Histology of a renal
corpuscle

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

ULTRAFILTRATION is .
A process in which smaller molecules are filtred from the
blood in the glomerulus into the Bowman capsule

Podocyte of visceral
layer of glomerular
(Bowmans) capsule
Filtration slit
Pedicel

Fenestration (pore) of glomerular

endothelial cell: prevents filtration of
blood cells but allows all components
of blood plasma to pass through

Basal lamina of glomerulus:

prevents filtration of larger proteins

(a) Details of filtration membrane

` FILTRATION MEMBRANE `
13

Podocyte of visceral
layer of glomerular
(Bowmans) capsule
Filtration slit
Pedicel

Fenestration (pore) of glomerular

endothelial cell: prevents filtration of
blood cells but allows all components
of blood plasma {water& small solute} to pass through

(a) Details of filtration membrane

Pedicel of podocyte

Filtration slit

Basal lamina

Lumen of glomerulus

TEM 78,000x

Fenestration (pore) of
glomerular endothelial cell
(b) Filtration membrane

FORMATION OF URINE
involves

1.

ultrafiltration
reabsorption
secretion

ULTRAFILTRATION

Process occurs at the glomerulus.

Diameter of the efferent arteriole which carries
blood out of the glomerulus is smaller than the
afferent arteriole which carries blood into the
glomerulus.
The high hydrostatic pressure develops in the
glomerulus
The high hydrostatic pressure causes many
constituents of blood plasma to be filtered out from
the glomerulus into Bowmans capsule (ultrafiltration).
The filtrate is called glomeruler filtrate.
15

Afferent
arteriole

Efferent
arteriole

16

The characteristic of glomerular filtrate :

Has similar composition as the blood plasma
except it does not contain larger molecules
such as red blood cell & plasma proteins.
The filtrate consists of inorganic ions,
glucose, amino acids, and urea dissolved in
water. Other substances such as vitamins, uric
acids, creatinine and hormones also found
Non-selective process : useful substance
and waste products are filtered into Bowmans
17
capsule

 The concentration of each of these solutes is

the same as it is in the blood plasma.
However, as the plasma contains plasma
proteins in solution, so the total concentration
of all solute is greater in the blood plasma.
Therefore, plasma has a lower solute
potential than the glomerular filtrate.
Glomerular filtrates is hypotonic to the blood
plasma.
Filtrate then moves along the nephron for
reabsorption to occur
18

WHAT IS THE FILTER ?

Filter formed by the basement membrane of

glomerulus and podocytes of the inner Bowmann`s capsule
wall (Figure 10.8d)
Basement membrane is a continous layer of organic
materials to which the endothelial cells of glomerulus
capillaries attached. Only molecules of RMM less than
68,000 can pass through. All constituents of blood plasma
other than protein plasma are able to pass through.
Inner wall of Bowmann`s capsule is made of podocytes
( figure 10.8b) . The structure of podocytes allows any subs.
Which have passed through the basement membrane to flow
freely in the gaps between the `branches` into the cavity of
Bowmann`s capsule.
19

Renal corpuscle of a
human
Note:
1. Interlobular artery and its
endothelial and smooth
muscle cells;
2. the vascular (top left) and
urinary (bottom) poles;
3. the capillary plexus of the
glomerulus and
Bowman's capsule;
4. the distal convoluted
tubule (above the
corpuscle).

20

Proximal and distal

convoluted tubules.
Mallory-azan. 380x
Note:
1. Proximal ones have
brush borders, an
acidophilic cytoplasm and
basal striations can be
seen in some places;
2. Distal ones have a less
acidophilic cytoplasm.

21

22

23

24

2.. SELECTIVE REABSORPTION

( by proximal convoluted tubule)

80% occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule

Selective reabsorption occurs by diffusion and
active transport .
All glucose, amino acids, vitamins & some
salts are reabsorb by active transport. Urea is
not reabsorbed.

Selective reabsorption
As filtered fluid moves along tubule and through collecting duct,
about 99% of water and many useful solutes reabsorbed
returned to blood
25

Reabsorption and secretion in the

proximal convoluted tubule

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 The substances (such as glucose and amino acids)

diffuse from filtrate to the cells of the tubule wall.
The cubical epithelial cells which line the tubule
wall have numerous microvilli on their free
surfaces which increase the surface area of wall
exposed to the glomerular filtrate.
Subs. then are actively transported into the
basal channel where they diffuse into the blood
capillaries.
The solutes than carried away in the blood, so
maintaining the conc. gradient.
27

 Some mineral ions such as sodium ions are

actively transported across the infolded
membrane. They are followed by chloride
ions.# ( ~ this increased osmotic pressure of
the cell cause water to be taken up
osmotically)
The removal of amino acids, glucose and
mineral ions make the filtrate more dilute and
water potential increases
Water (65%) then moves out by osmosis and
is caried away.
28

At the end of the proximal tubule, a balanced

has been reached and the filtrate is isotonic with
the plasma.
So, as the filtrate enters the loop of Henle, it is
isotonic to the blood and contains water, some
salt and urea .
About 20% of water & some salts are
reabsorbed

into the blood capillaries by osmosis &

active transport.

If a person is suffering from diabetes melitus, the

concentration of glucose in the filtrate may be higher than
usual. It may therefore not all glucose be reabsorbed. This is
why glucose may appear in the urine of a sufferer
( glycosuria).

29

FUNCTIONAL UNIT : A NEPHRON

Bowmann capsule
Glomerulus

Afferent
arteriole from
renal artery

Proximal convoluted tubule

Peritubular
capillaries

Efferent arteriole
from glomerulus

Distal convoluted
tubule

Distal convoluted
tubule

Branch of vein

Loop of
Henle

Descending
limb

Collecting
duct

Ascending
limb
Vasa
Recta

30

Reabsorption routes: paracellular

reabsorption and transcellular reabsorption

31

The adaptation of proximal convoluted tubule for

the reabsorption process

32

33

34

REABSORPTION at LOOP OF HENLE

The fitrate now only contain water, some salts & urea
passes along the loop of Henle.
About 20% of water & some salts are reabsorbed
into the blood capillaries by osmosis & active transport.
Then it continue to pass through distal convoluted tubule
and collecting duct, where some water & salts are
reabsorbed into the blood capillaries depends on blood
osmotic pressure.
the reabsorption of water regulated by ADH (antidiuretic
hormone)
the reabsorption of salts regulated by Aldosterone
hormone.

35

THE LOOP OF HENLE

Is U shape
the descending limb - has thin wall
- permeable to water
the ascending limb - has thicker wall
- impermeable to water

The loop surrounded by blood capillaries called as

vasa recta
37

ROLE THE LOOP OF HENLE

to make tissue fluid and the tissues

medulla of the between the nephron
( interstitial tissues) very concentrated
with solutes.
( lowest water potential in the body)

38

39

Role of loop of Henle

~

The working of the loop of Henle

The ascending limb actively transported Na+ out

of the filtrate into surrounding tissues. Cl- follows
pasively.
Surrounding tissue becomes more concentrated
with salt than the filtrate. Water molecules cannot
follow by osmosis as the wall of ascending limb
is impermeable to water.

40

 The longer the loop, the more sodium chloride

can be transported and the more
concentrated the medulla tissues can
become.
The deeper part of the medulla near the pelvis
becomes most concentrated and so has the
lowest water potential.
There is a water potential gradient between
the deep part of the medulla and the part near
the cortex.

41

 Because of the permeability of the wall of the

decending limb to water so water pass out of
the filtrate into the tissue by osmosis.
From tissue water than passes into the vasa
recta and is carried away in blood.
The filtrate become more concentrated as it
reaches the loop bend and has a water
potential balancing the surrounding. It is
hypertonic to the blood.

42

 When the filtrate begins to flow up the

ascending limb, NaCl is actively pumped out.
This makes the filtrate more hypotonic to the
blood as it enters the distal convoluted tubule in
the cortex.
At the bend of the loop of Henle the
concentration of the medula reaches a
maximum ( lowest water potential)
The collecting duct also pass through this region
of medula. More water may be drawn out
from the collecting duct into the medula by
osmosis.
43

Na+K+ pump in the thick ascending limb of the

loop of Henle

44

The Distal Convoluted Tubule

The cells of the wall of the distal convoluted

tubule (DCT) are similar to those of proximal
convoluted tubule.
The role is to reabsorbs varying quantities of
inorganic ions according to the body`s needs
It also can secrete substances into the filtrate.
For example, it controls the pH of the blood by
secreting the hydrogen ions into the filtrate
when the blood is too acidic and if it is too
alkaline it secretes hydrogen carbonate ion into
the filtrate.
45

The walls of the DCT are permeable to water if

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is present.
Otherwise, they are impermeable to water.
From DCT filtrate then enters the collecting
duct.
The reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- depend on
the needs of body and it is controlled by
hormones like aldosteron

46

tubular Secretion
Although urine formation occurs primarily by the filtration-reabsorption
mechanism described above, an auxiliary mechanism, called tubular
secretion, is also involved.
The cells of the tubules remove certain molecules and ions from the
blood and deposit these into the fluid within the tubules.
Example: Excess hydrogen ions (H+) are combined with ammonia (NH3)
to form ammonium ions (NH4+) and transported to the cells of the
collecting ducts. Here the NH4+ dissociates back into ammonia and H+.
Both are then secreted into the fluid within the collecting ducts (the
protons by active transport).
Tubular secretion of H+ is important in maintaining control of the pH of
the blood.When the pH of the blood starts to drop, more hydrogen ions
are secreted.
If the blood should become too alkaline, secretion of H+ is reduced.
In maintaining the pH of the blood within its normal limits of 7.37.4,
the kidney can produce a urine with a pH as low as 4.5 or as high as 8.5.
Excess potassium ions (K+) are also disposed of by tubular secretion.47

Different concentration

48

44.5 ~ WATER
CONSERVATION IS A KEY TO
TERRESTRIAL
ADAPTATION
As the filtrate flows in
the collecting duct
past interstitial fluid of
increasing osmolarity,
more water moves out
of the duct by osmois,
thereby concentrating
the solutes, including
urea, that are left
behind in the filtrate.

1.

SECRETION
As filtered fluid moves along tubule and through collecting duct,
other material secreted into fluid such as wastes, drugs, and
excess ions removes substances from blood

The process involves the pumping out of the waste

products from the peritubular capillaries into the tubule
(PCT and DCT)
The waste products such as urea, uric acid & ammonia
and hydrogen ions are pumped out of the blood
capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule by active
transport.
Some drug, hydrogen ions, ammonium and other toxin
by simple diffusion, along the PCT.
The final glomerular filtrate which remains in the

..

SECRETION

Some drug and other toxin by simple diffusion,

along the tubule.
The final glomerular filtrate which remains in
the collecting duct is called urine.
The major constituents of urine are 96% of
water, 2.5% nitrogenous products (urea, uric
acid, ammonia, creatinine), 1.5% salts & bile
pigments.
From the collecting ducts, urine is channelled
into the pelvis & carried out of the kidney by the
ureter to the urinary bladder & excreted out of the
body by urethra.

52

Summary of filtration, reabsorption, and

secretion in the nephron and collecting duct

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

THE ROLE OF ANTIDIURETIC

HORMONE (ADH) AND
ALDOSTERONE
in
OSMOREGULATION

54

( Regulation of blood water potential by kidney of mammals )

Definition :

~ Is the process of controlling of the

water content and the concentration of
salt/ inorganic ions in the body
( animal or protozoan)
55

( Regulation of blood water potential by kidney of mammals )

The osmotic concentration of the blood must be

maintained at a steady state .
Importance :
To bathed body cells in isotonic tissue fluid with
their cytoplasm
This prevents excessive amounts of water
entering or leaving cells osmotically which would
damage the cells.
Cells can carry out metabolic reactions efficiently
56

Osmoregulation . achieved with the help of

ADH or vasopressin that controls the
permeability of the wall of DCT and CD
(collecting duct)
Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH )
Produced in hypothalamus
stored in posterior pituitary gland.

57

58

Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH )

Function ADH :
1.The presence of ADH, increases the permeability of the
wall of distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts
to water.
H2O in filtrate
cortex & medulla
(in DCT)
reabsorb

blood capillary

2. Also increases the permeability of the collecting duct

with urea. Urea from filtrate diffuses into the interstitial
fluid of medulla. Increases the osmotic conc ( decrease
wp) of the medulla tissue resulting in the reabsorption of
water from the decending limb of Henle.

59

 The presence of ADH causes the production

of hypertonic or concentrated urine
( More ADH more concentrated urine
absence/less ADH dilute(hypotonic urine)

How this condition happens?

60

When blood osmotic concentration is

high
.excessive sweating, ingest excess salt, not take in
adequate water it diet

1. The receptor ; osmoreceptor situated in

hypothalamus will detect the changes in the
blood osmotic concentration ( water potential)
2. If the blood osmotic concentration flowing near the
osmoreceptors below than the normal level ,
impulses are transmitted to the posterior pituitary
gland and is stimulates to release ADH into the
blood
61

3. ADH circulates in the blood and affects on its

target cells, the cells of the walls of the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct
4. The membrane of the cells become more
permeable to water, and water molecule is
reabsorb from filtrate into cortex and medulla
and .
5. This will produced a less volume and
hypertonic urine and excreted out of the body
by the kidney

62

6. This process also increases the blood osmotic

concentration (wp) back to normal as water
drawn in from nephron tubule into the vasa
recta.
7.. The osmoreceptors also stimulate a sensation
of thirst.
8. Although the wp has been controlled, sweating
will have led to a reduction in the volume of
body fluids which is restored by drinking.

9. When the blood osmotic concentration

(wp) rises back to normal, the
osmoreceptors are not longer stimulated.
10. The release of ADH is reduced/stopped, the
cells of the walls of DCT and CD become
much more impermeable to water.
11.The water remains in the urine, hypotonic
urine is produced and the wp becomes
lowered as more water is lost relative to the
solutes.

64

The reabsorption of water in the kidney is

regulated by antiduresis hormone (ADH)
released by pituitary gland

PITUITARY GLAND

65

66

67

What is the role of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) in

regulating salt and water concentrations in the blood?
The ADH or anti diuretic hormone is responsbile in regulating
water concentrations in the body. By reducing the amount of
urine being excreted this is usually the body's response when
being threathened from dehydration.
The pituitary gland is in control of releasing more or less of
ADH. The amount of ADH released will absorb more water or
less into the bloodstream accordingly to the body needs and
sodium.
ADH mainly preserves body fluids by avoiding too much
water loss. It also manages osmolarity. Through
osmolarity, the consumption and excretion of sodium or
salt is well-maintained.
68

THE ROLE OF ALDOSTERONE

To control the concentration of sodium
and potassium ions in the blood

Sodium
Although 97% of the sodium has already been removed, it is the
last 3% that determines the final balance of sodium and hence
water content and blood pressure in the body. The reabsorption
of sodium in the distal tubule and the collecting ducts is closely
regulated, chiefly by the action of the hormone aldosterone.

69

CONTROL OF SODIUM ION ( Na+) CONCENTRATION or

BLOOD PRESSURE IN THE BLOOD

When the concentration of sodium ions is low,

blood wp increases (becomes less negative),
causes water to diffuse out of blood by osmosis into the
tissue

As a result, blood pressure in the capillaries

decreases.

The low blood pressure is detected by a group of

cells called the juxtaglomerular apparatus.

70

The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) , is a

specialised tissue in the vaccinity of the arterioles
leading to glomeruli of the kidney
respond to a decrease in blood pressure
or blood volume by releasing
enzyme renin.

71

Low BP rennin

72

 Renin initiates the conversion of

angiotensinogen (plasma protein) to its
active form, angiotensin I ( in the
bloodstream) which then is converted to
angiotensin II;
Angiotensin II :
a) act directly to increase blood pressure by
causing arterioles to constrict.

73

b) act to increases

blood

volume by
i) signaling PCT to reabsorp more
NaCl and water
ii) signaling the adrenal gland to
released aldosterone, and this
hormone will stimulates the
active reabsorption of Na+
(and Cl-) across the cells walls
of the DCT. Results in the
movement of water out of DCT
by osmosis into the blood.

ADRENAL GLAND

 The blood pressure rises

until it returns to the set
point.

Thus, the releasing of renin

, lead to an increase in
blood volume and blood
pressure, results that
complete the feedback
circuit by suppressing the
further release of renin..
OSMOLARITY of the blood

High concentration = high osmotic pressure = low WP

Drinking reduces the osmolarity of the blood and inhibit the secretion of ADH
76

HORMONAL CONTROL OF KIDNEY by negative feedback mechanism

77

Blood volume
and blood
pressure rises

Less renin
produced

Less angiostensin II
formed

Na+ falls

Na+ rises

Normal blood
sodium
concentration

Normal blood
sodium concentration

Na+ rises

Na+ falls

Blood vol.and
pressure falls

Adrenal cortex
produces less
aldosterone

More renin
produced

More angiostensin II
formed

Adrenal cortex
produces more
aldosteron

78

THE REGULATION OF BLOOD pH

by Kidney

Normal blood pH is 7.4

Blood and interstitial fluid have a pH of about 7.4

The pH must be kept constant or within narrow limit
because enzymes and other proteins are denatured
by the changes in pH

79

Can blood pH change from the set point.7.4?

high CO2 concentration due to cellular respiration

80

Regulation of blood pH
Role of kidney
Reabsorption of bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
Excretion of bicarbonate and hydrogen ions

By peritubule of
kidney

Blood and interstitial fluid have a pH of about 7.4. The presence

of carbon dioxide reduces the blood pH
Abrupt change in blood pH is prevented by the presence of
plasma proteins in the blood, while hydrogen carbonate and
phosphate ions act together as buffers.

81

 If the blood pH is fall below 7.4, due to high CO2 conc.

the cells of the PCT and DCT, combine water and carbon
dioxide to form carbonic acid which the dissociates into H+
and HCO3- .
HCO3- ions are actively absorb into the blood combine with
excess H+ ions in the blood, pH of blood rise to the
normal state
hydrogen ions from dissociation of carbonic acid are actively
pumped into the filtrate( lumen of DCT) , and combine with
HPO42- to form H2PO4- and are excreted in the urine

82

83

84

85

Renin
One of the functions of the kidney is to monitor blood pressure and take
corrective action if it should drop. The kidney does this by secreting the
proteolytic enzyme renin.
Renin acts on angiotensinogen, a plasma peptide, splitting off a fragment
containing 10 amino acids called
angiotensin I.
angiotensin I is cleaved by a peptidase secreted by blood vessels called
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) producing
angiotensin II, which contains 8 amino acids.
angiotensin II
constricts the walls of arterioles closing down capillary beds;
stimulates the proximal tubules in the kidney to reabsorb sodium ions;
stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Aldosterone causes the
kidneys to reclaim still more sodium and thus water [Discussion].
increases the strength of the heartbeat;
stimulates the pituitary to release the antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as
arginine vasopressin).
All of these actions lead to an increase in blood pressure.
86