Week Logical Fallacies

GXEX1406
Thinking and Communication Skills
Logical Fallacies
GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies
Premise & Conclusion

Premise:
All girls have long eyelashes.
Cows has long eyelashes
Conclusion:
Therefore, all girls are cows
Is this statement logically right?
Is this reasoning logical?
Premise:
A cloud is 90% water.
A watermelon is 90% water.
A plane can fly through a cloud.
Conclusion:
Therefore, a plane can fly through
a watermelon
There is logic in the premise

of the statements
BUT the conclusion makes no
logical sense.
The reasoning is flawed

The conclusion is illogical
This type of arguments are called

Logical fallacies
Fallacy is a mistake in reasoning
A statement or argument based on false
inference that causes incorrectness in reasoning
Used to cloud our logical thinking, appeal to our

emotions rather than intellect
Often masquerade as logical statements

Objective of the course

You will be able to identify
fallacies
Able to indicate instances

or type of fallacy
Situations
Found in newspapers,
magazines, reports,
advertisements
Why Study
Fallacies ?
Able to spot poor
reasoning & know why it is

wrong
Able to correct others
mistakes, or refute them

convincingly
Supplements your
knowledge on logic
Why Study
Fallacies ?
Know when your
reasoning in an essay is
flawed or questionable
Prevent you from making

generalized statements
without backing it up with
sound evidence
3 categories of fallacies
(1) Fallacies that appeal to emotions
(total 4)
- Claims are made that appeal to emotions
rather than reason
(2) Fallacies that distract (total 3)
Claims made to divert attention

from the main issue
(3) Other common types (total 5)

10
(1)
TYPE 1- appeal to emotions
(a) Appeal to fear/force/scare tactics -ad

baculum
The claim makes use of threats.

The threats are irrelevant to the argument.
Therefore the claim is fallacious
11
Example: appeal to fear/force/scare tactics
If you dont finish your
vegetables, you will get cancer
If you do not forward this mail to
10 friends, you will face bad luck (chain mail)
Listerine: kills the germ that

causes bad breath
12
WHY FALLACIOUS?
- No proof that not eating veges can
cause cancer + Not all cancers are
caused by not eating veges
No proof that the chain mail causes bad

luck
- Other factors may also cause bad

breath.
13
(1)
TYPE 1
(b) Appeal to vanity/flattery

Use flattery to make the reader or listener feel
special.
Use persuasive language.
Often used in advertisements. To entice
consumers to buy products or services
14
Example: Appeal to vanity/flattery
I dont moisturize, I dont tone, I

just use Dove!
BMW 3.0Si: for those who deny

themselves nothing
SBB blue-chip MasterCard, a

radically new way of life
15
WHY FALLACIOUS?
- Where is the proof that Dove is 3 in
1? That it moisturizes & tones other

than it just cleans ?
- Can a car really last for life?

- having the new master card may not
necessary change your life in a
radical way
16
TYPE 1
(b) Appeal to numbers/ bandwagon
(1)
/peer pressure
Use to solicit group identity
Put pressure on individuals to follow the
crowd.
Often used in adverts - to buy software or
hardware or other products & services
17
Example: Appeal to numbers/bandwagon/peer pressure
Millions of people smoke. Therefore

smoking must not be bad for people.
All the really smart people watch

University Challenge. You should watch
too.
Classical music is really neat - but like

my friends I prefer Linkin Park. We are
not nerds.
18
WHY FALLACIOUS?
Just because millions of people do

something is a poor basis to say that the
action is right.
Not smart people also watch that TV

show!
You dont have to follow your friends in

your choice of music to listen to. Where
is the proof that classical music lovers
are nerds?
19
(1)
TYPE 1
(b) Appeal to pity (ad misericodium)

Use pity to establish the truth of a
conclusion
Use language to evoke compassion to
induce the listener to accept the claim
20
Example: Appeal to pity
You should hire him as a coach of

our football team because he broke
his leg and cannot play big time
football anymore.
We should re-elect Encik Fauzi as

our MP because his wife just died
and his crippled mother lives with
him.
21
Why Fallacious?
Pity does not serve as evidence for a

claim.
Therefore the claim is fallacious
22
TYPE 2 - Fallacies that distract (total 3

- Claim that diverts attention from the
)
main
(a) Adissue
Hominem
/ against the person
Sometimes called - fallacy of opposition
Attacks the persons personality,
beliefs, affiliation, ethnicity to reject a
claim
23
Example: Ad-Hominem
Encik Latif just divorce his wife. How

can his proposal be any good?
How can you vote for Salmah as
prefect when she is related to the
Headmistress?
You agree that the
government should
increase on military spending because
your father works in a munitions factory.
24
Why Fallacious?
The character or circumstance of the
person has no claim on the truth of the
claim.
Encik Latif divorcing his wife has got nothing
to do with his working ability
Salmah may have the makings of a good
prefect even though she is related to the
head mistress.
25
TYPE 2
(b) Red Herring
An issue brought into the picture to divert the
listeners or readers attention from the real
issue
This happens a lot in meetings and group
discussions.
Be aware of this!
26
Example: Red herring
Why worry about the Pandas

becoming extinct when we have a large
number of homeless in our own
country?
Why should we donate to the Iraq war
when we still have people living in
poverty?
27
Why Fallacious?
One issue is not related to the other.
Therefore the first claim cannot justify the
second claim.
The extinction of pandas and the homeless
are two separate issues
The contribution to Iraq war and the plight of
the poor are two separate issues.
28
TYPE 2
(c) Straw Man

Oversimplify an evidence to support a
claim.
The simplification, therefore cannot
support the claim
29
Example: Straw Man & why fallacious
Those who favor gun control also favor

disarming the police
This is oversimplifying the issue. The
first claim is not strong enough to
support the second claim.
30
Example: Straw Man & why fallacious
What women in her right mind would

support total equality with men. No
women wants the right to go to war or
the right to pay alimony
Oversimplify the issue. Equality does not
mean for every situations!
31
TYPE 3 - Other common fallacies

(a) Begging the question (circular
argument)
The claims in the premise is again drawn in

the conclusion.
Redundant
Repeating an issue (going in circles)
The argument does not go anywhere!
32
Example: begging the question & why

fallacious?
My argument must be correct because
I am the smartest student in the class.
The conclusion merely restate the
premise. Being smart does not mean
that you are correct.
33

fallacious?
Murderers should be executed

because they are killers!
The conclusion merely restate the
premise. Murderers are killers by
definition. So, what is the justification
why killers must be executed?
34

fallacious?
The bible is the word of God because it

says it is.
Whether or not the bible is the word of God is a

matter of personal faith. The statement should
be written as:
The Bible says that it is the word of God. The
word of God cannot be false. Therefore, the
Bible is the word of God.
35

(b) Slippery slop (snowball argument/
domino theory)
Suggests to the listener that if one action is
taken, it will lead to similar actions & the end
result is negative or undesirable
Assumes a chain reaction of cause-effect of
events
36
Example: slippery slope & why fallacious?

Let one student disrupt my lecture,
then other students would want to ask &
I therefore cannot complete my lecture
in time.
Students interruptions may disrupt a
lecture BUT not all lectures are delayed
because of students disruptions.
37
Example & why fallacious?

President Richard Nixon - We have to
win in Vietnam or the entire SEA will
become communist
Winning the Vietnam war might have
saved Vietnam from Communism BUT
not all communist state are dependent
of the success of the Vietnam War.
38
(c) False dilemma or black / white

argument/ either -or
A limited number of opinion is given
when in reality there are more options
An illegitimate use or the word or
39
Example of False Dilemma (black/white) &

why fallacious?
FSKTM Love it or leave it.

Should have been written as:
One of the ways to excel in FSKTM is to love
the life here. Hating it would affect your
studies and may result with you having to
leave.
40

why fallacious?
Stop smoking or die young.
Fallacious because death can be
caused by other factors not just by
smoking. Should have been written as:
One of the ways to avoid dying young is
to stop smoking as smoking might affect
ones health.
41

why fallacious?
Either go to college or forget about
getting a good job.
Fallacious because good jobs are not
dependent on going to college alone.
Should have been written as:
Going to college and getting a degree is

one means of getting a good job.
42
(d) Hasty generalization

This is the chief error made by many.
Leaping to a conclusion without a
strong or large enough justification.
43
Example of Hasty generalization
Feminists hate men. Ramlah is a feminist.

Ramlah hates men.
I notice that my fat friend is jolly.
Therefore all fat people are jolly.
All pop stars are rude. I asked Elton John
for his autograph at a restaurant and he
told me to get lost.
All the arguments are based on insufficient evidence
& there fore are not valid.
44

(b) Burden of Proof (Appeal to ignorance)
Premise: If something has not been proven as
false, the claim must be true.
Shifts the burden the other party to prove in
order to make a claim.
45
Example of burden of proof & why

fallacious?
Since you cannot proof that ghosts does not

exist, then they do exist.
Since scientists cannot proof that global
warming will take place, it probably wont.
The new experimental drug must be working

because not a single patient has returned to
complain.
46
SUMMARY OF FALLACIES
(1) Fallacies that appeal to emotions (total 4)

- Claims are made appeal to emotions rather
than reason
Appeal to Fear/Force/ Scare tactics or ad baculum
Appeal to Vanity/Flattery
Appeal to Numbers/ Belief/
Bandwagon/Peer pressure
Appeal to Pity (Ad misericordium)
47
(2) Fallacies that distract (total 3)
- Claims made divert attention from the
main issue
Ad hominem (attack/against the

person)
Red herring
Straw Man
48
(3) Other common types (total 5)
Begging the question (circular

arguments)
Slippery slope (domino theory)
False dilemma (either- or)
Hasty generalization
Burden of proof
49
THE END
THE END
50
WARMING UP
Identify & explain the logical
fallacy in the following
statements.
51
1. Could I receive an A for this class. If I

don't get an 'A' I won't get the
scholarship that I apply for
1. Appeal to fear/scare tactics
2. Appeal to numbers /bandwagon/ peer

pressure
3. Redherring/smokescreen
4. Appeal to pity
5. Slippery slope / domino theory
6. Begging the question / circular argument
7. Hasty generalization
52
1. Could I receive an A for this class. If I

don't get an 'A' I won't get the
scholarship that I apply for
Appeal to pity
This line of "reasoning" is fallacious
because pity does not serve as
evidence for a claim
Just to get a scholarship does not
justify a person to be given an A
There are other criteria to be considered
53
2. The women in my family love

babies. All women love babies
1. Appeal to numbers /bandwagon/peer
pressure
3. Appeal to pity
4. Appeal to fear /scare tactics /ad
bacculum
5. Ad hominem
6. Begging the question/circular argument
54
2. All women in my family love

babies. All women love babies
Faulty logic unqualified
A generalization. This fallacy is
committed when a person draws
a conclusion about a population
based on a sample that is not
large enough
55
3. You shouldnt accept national

health care because it is a socialist idea
pressure
3. Appeal to pity
bacculum
5. Ad hominem
56
3. You shouldnt accept national

health care because it is a socialist idea
Red herring
Switching to another issue to distract
from the main argument. This sort of
"reasoning" is fallacious because
merely changing the topic of
discussion hardly counts as an
argument against a claim.
57
4. In a democracy the people are free

because democracies are free countries.
pressure
3. Appeal to pity
bacculum
5. Ad hominem
58
4. In a democracy the people are free

because democracies are free countries.
Begging the question
Circular argument
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because
simply assuming that the premise is true does
not constitute evidence for that conclusion.
Democracy = free country = free people.
Circular argument with no end.
59
5. The gang members caught by the police last

night comprises immigrants from country X.
Most immigrants who work in this country
have trouble with the law and come from
country X where thievery are rampant.
2. Slippery slope/ domino theory
3. Scare tactics /ad bacculum
4. Ad hominem
7. Burden of proof/Appeal to ignorance
60
5. The gang members caught by the police last

night comprises immigrants from country X.
Most immigrants who work in this country
have trouble with the law and come from
country X where thievery are rampant.
Faulty logic unqualified
Generalization. Making a
judgment based on a small
Sample.
61
6. Ralph Nader was the best candidate

for president, because he was totally
better than any of the others.
4. Ad hominem
6. Hasty generalisation
62
6. Ralph Nader was the best candidate

for president, because he was totally
better than any of the others.
Begging the question/

Circular argument
Assumption -- Nader is better than the other
candidates, conclusion -- Nader is the best.
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because
simply assuming that the conclusion is true
(directly or indirectly) in the premises does not
constitute evidence for that conclusion.
63
7. If you don't finish your homework you

won't get a good grade. Then you won't be
able to get into the college you want. You
will end up cleaning toilets for a living.
4. Ad hominem
64
7. If you don't finish your homework you

won't get a good grade. Then you won't be
able to get into the college you want. You
will end up cleaning toilets for a living.
Appeal to fear /scare tactics

It is an appeal to force or threat
instead of trying to convince
someone with facts or a logical
argument
65
8. How could anyone vote for Hilary Clinton

for senator?The fact that she is married to
Clinton proves that she has no self respect.
4. Ad hominem
66
8. How could anyone vote for Hilary Clinton

for senator?The fact that she is married to
Clinton proves that she has no self respect.
Ad hominem
Attacking the person rather than the issue. Ad Hominem"
means "against the man" or "against the person.
Ad Hominem is a fallacy because the character,
circumstances, or actions of a person do not (in most
cases) have a bearing on the truth of the claim being made
(or the quality of the argument being made).
67
9. UFO must exist because no reputable studies

have proven conclusively that they do not.
4. Ad hominem
68
9. UFO must exist because no reputable studies

have proven conclusively that they do not.
Burden of proof
Shifts
the
burden
of
proof
to
the
other
Causal fallacy
party in order to make a claim.
However, no evidence is given to
proof that UFO do exist.
69
10. If you are beautiful, you could live like

this, so buy Buty-EZ and become
beautiful.
4. Ad hominem
6. Appeal to vanity/flattery
70
10. If you are beautiful, you could live like

this, so buy Buty-EZ and become
beautiful.
Appeal to vanity/flattery
Here the appeal is to beautiful people.
This line of "reasoning" is fallacious
because the fact that flattery does not,
in general, serve as evidence that the
claim is true.
71
11. State the fallacy implied
72
My friends uses Linux because it makes their

PC more powerful & stable. My friend uses
Linux so must I.
Appeal to number /Bandwagon /

peer pressure
Implies something is right because
everybody believes so. This line of
"reasoning" is fallacious because
peer pressure and threat of
rejection do not constitute evidence for
rejecting a claim
73
12. We cant allow students any voice in

decision making, if we do, it wont be long
before they are in total control
4. Ad hominem
74
12. We cant allow students any voice in

decision making, if we do, it wont be long
before they are in total control
Slippery slope /domino theory

No middle road is given. Assumes that
when the first action is taken, it would
subsequently follow through to the
last. Is this true?
75
13. Women need to be either brilliant or

beautiful to survive in this world.
3. False dilemma (black or white/either-or)
4. Ad hominem
76
13. Women need to be either brilliant or

beautiful to survive in this world.
False dilemma (black or white/

either or)
Include eitheror . Just gives two
opposite extremes instead of allowing
for other possibilities. Not all women
who survive in this world are brilliant
or beautiful.
77
14. Those who favor gun-control legislation

just want to take all guns away from
responsible citizens and put them into the
hands of the criminals.
3. False dilemma (black or white/either-or)
4. Ad hominem
6. Strawman (oversimplification)
78
14. Those who favor gun-control legislation

just want to take all guns away from
responsible citizens and put them into the
hands of the criminals.
Strawman (oversimplification)
misrepresent an opponent's position to
make it easier to attack, usually by
distorting his or her views to ridiculous
extremes
79

Week Logical Fallacies

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GXEX1406

Thinking and Communication Skills

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Premise & Conclusion

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Is this reasoning logical?

There is logic in the premise

The reasoning is flawed

This type of arguments are called

inference that causes incorrectness in reasoning

Used to cloud our logical thinking, appeal to our

Often masquerade as logical statements

Objective of the course

Able to indicate instances

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

reasoning & know why it is

Able to correct others

mistakes, or refute them

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Prevent you from making

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Claims made to divert attention

(3) Other common types (total 5)

TYPE 1- appeal to emotions

(a) Appeal to fear/force/scare tactics -ad

The claim makes use of threats.

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Example: appeal to fear/force/scare tactics

If you dont finish your

vegetables, you will get cancer

If you do not forward this mail to

10 friends, you will face bad luck (chain mail)

Listerine: kills the germ that

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

No proof that the chain mail causes bad

- Other factors may also cause bad

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

(b) Appeal to vanity/flattery

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Example: Appeal to vanity/flattery

I dont moisturize, I dont tone, I

BMW 3.0Si: for those who deny

SBB blue-chip MasterCard, a

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

- Where is the proof that Dove is 3 in

1? That it moisturizes & tones other

- Can a car really last for life?

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Example: Appeal to numbers/bandwagon/peer pressure

Millions of people smoke. Therefore

All the really smart people watch

Classical music is really neat - but like

Just because millions of people do

Not smart people also watch that TV

You dont have to follow your friends in

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

(b) Appeal to pity (ad misericodium)

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies

Example: Appeal to pity

You should hire him as a coach of

We should re-elect Encik Fauzi as

Pity does not serve as evidence for a

Therefore the claim is fallacious

GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills Week 12 Logical Fallacies