Module 2: Instrument Types

E D B 3 0 1 3 I N S T R U M E N T AT I O N & M E A S U R E M E N T

Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

Calculate the accuracy of measured variables

List the probable measurement errors

Active and Passive Instruments

3

Passive: output produced

completely by quantity
measured
No external power source is
required
Passive pressure gauge

Active: output signal is

modulated magnitude of
external power source
Quantity measured can be
amplified for better
resolution and reliability

Float-type
tank level
gauge

Null-Type and Deflection-Type

4

Null: quantity measured by putting

external value equivalent.

Better accuracy as external value
can be easily chosen
Dead-weight pressure gauge

Deflection: quantity
measured using equivalent
motion.
Accuracy depends on the
linearity and calibration of
pointer spring
Passive pressure gauge

Analog and Digital

5

Analog: displayed continuous

proportional changes to actual

measurements

Digital: quantity displayed

in terms of discrete
equivalent values after
processing

Instrument Characteristics
6

Static properties:

characteristics when
measurement remains
constant

Dynamic properties:
relationship between input
and output when
measured quantity varies

Accuracy of Measurement
7

Accuracy: closeness/conformity to the true value of a quantity under

measurement
Precision: reproducibility of the measurement (measure / difference

of successive measurements)

Accuracy of Measurement
8

Sensitivity: ratio of instrument output over response to

change of input/measured variable

instrument output
Sensitivit y
measured variable
Resolution: smallest change in measured value

instrument able to record

Significant Figures: precision of measurements and

reported result
Error: deviation from the true value of measured variable

Example: Pressure Measurement

9

Pressure Gauge:
measurement range 0 -10 bar

fs 1.0%

Full-scale reading
precision:

% error

measured value true value

100%
true value

Maximum error:e

max

1.0% 10 bar 0.1 bar

(1 0.1 bar ) 1 bar

Measurement error
e1bar
100 10%
for reading 1 bar (in
1 bar
%):

Example: Tolerance
10

Resistors:
pack of resistors with R = 1000

tolerance:

5%

Minimum value:

Rmin 1000 5% 950

Maximum value:

Rmax 1000 5% 1050

Linearity and Measurement Sensitivity

11

Linearity
instrument output is
proportional to measured
quantity
Sensitivity:
Sensitivit y

Scale deflection
Slope
Value

Sensitivity to Disturbance
12

Instrument specifications are described for controlled

conditions (ambient conditions) eg. pressure,

temperature
Instrument static properties vary as ambient conditions
change, described in zero drift and sensitivity drift

Sensitivity to Disturbance
13

Zero Drift
AKA bias
Affects zero reading
when condition changes,
constant error across full
range

Sensitivity Drift
AKA scale factor drift
Instrument sensitivity
changes when condition
changes

Example 1: Measurement Sensitivity

14

Platinum resistance thermometers:

resistivity measured at varying
temperatures
R

307

200

330

314

230

325

321

260

320

328

290

Resistance

315
310

Measurement
sensitivity:
7

Rsens

30 C

0.233 / C

305
300
295
180

200

220

240

260

280

300

Example 2: Measurement
Sensitivity
15

Spring
Balance:
calibrated at
20C
used at 30C

Load (kg)

Deflect (mm)

20

40

60

Load (kg)

Deflect (mm)

27

49

71

Measurement
20 mm
sensitivity:
Dsens (20 C )
20 mm / kg

1 kg
22 mm
Dsens (30 C )
22 mm / kg
1 kg
Zero drift = 5 mm
Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg

Sensitivity
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Zero drift coefficient = 5 mm/10 C = 0.5

mm /C
Sensitivity drift coefficient = 2
(mm/kg)/10 C
= 0.2 (mm/kg) /C

1
Deflection (mm)

2
Deflection (mm)

Statistical Analysis of Measurement

16

Arithmetic mean (average) of readings:

x
x1 x2 where
xn x =measured
i 1 i
value,
x

n
n
n = number
of reading /
measurement
n

Average reading the most likely value for measured variable

Deviation, d : d1 x1 x

d 2 x2 x d n xn x
n

Average deviationD

d1 d 2 d n
n

Average amount of measurement error

Statistical Analysis of Measurement

17
n

Standard deviation,
Probable error:

2
2
2
d

d
1
2
n
:

2
d
i
i 1

r 0.6745

random errors that lie scattered within 50% probability

region around mean

Example: Statistical Analysis

18

Normal Error Distribution

19

( x m ) 2 / 2 2
F ( x)
e
2
P ( D1 D D2 )

D2

1
D 2 / 2 2 dD
e
D 2
1

Deviation

Fraction Area

0.6745

0.5000

1.0

0.6828

2.0

0.9546

3.0

0.9972

Probable error:
r 0.6745

Example 1: Statistical Analysis

20

Readi
ng

Deviatio
n

R ()

100.2

0.2

0.04

100.3

0.3

0.09

99.8

-0.2

0.04

d2

100.5

0.5

0.25

99.3

0.7

0.49

100.4

0.4

0.16

100.1

0.1

0.01

99.5

-0.5

0.25

99.7

0.3

0.09

99.7

0.3

0.09

Determine:
a) measurement range
Range Rmax Rmin 100.5 99.3 1.2

b) average reading

10

Rave

i 1

10

Ri

999.5
100.0
10

c) Deviation, d
- as shown in table -

Precision:
ONE decimal

Example 1: Statistical Analysis

21

Readi
ng
R ()
100.2

Deviatio
n
d
0.2

d2

Determine:
d) standard deviation
n

0.04

d
i 1

2
i

1.51
0.4
10 1

100.3

0.3

0.09

99.8

-0.2

0.04

100.5

0.5

0.25

e) probable error

99.3

0.7

0.49

Probable error, r 0.6745 0.2763

100.4

0.4

0.16

100.1

0.1

0.01

99.5

-0.5

0.25

99.7

0.3

0.09

99.7

0.3

0.09

n 1

Example 2: Statistical Analysis

22

Number of measuremen t, n 11
Average (mean) reading 409
2
deviation
1370

2
deviation

1370
Variance,

137
n 1
10
Standard deviation, 137 11.7
Probable error, r 0.6745 7.89
2

Hysteresis
23

Hysteresis:
Different increasing and

reducing trend
Hysteresis in magnetic

element/spring : noncoincidence
between loading and unloading.

Dead Space
24

Also known as Dead Zone, is the range of input

values over which there is no change in the

output
Example: Backlash in gears used to measure
rotational velocity

Types of Errors
25

Gross Error: human error due to incorrect use of equipment,

wrong observation, carelessness etc.

Systematic Errors
Instrumental: inherent to measuring eqpt.
Static: limitation of device
Dynamic: inability to respond to change in measured
variable
Environmental: due to change in external conditions
(temperature, pressure, humidity, magnetic/electric fields)
Random Errors: due to unknown causes

Gross Errors
26

Caused by human error due to incorrect use of equipment,

wrong observation, carelessness etc.

Careful attention
and observation
Reduction
Awareness of
Methods
instrument
limitations
Taking at least 3
readings
>1 observer to
observe critical data

Erroneous
calculations
Other Improper choice of
Example instruments
Incorrect
s
adjustment
Neglect of loading
effects

Estimatio
n

Not possible to
estimate

Systematic Errors
27

Can come from 2 sources:

1. Instrumental: inherent to measuring equipment

Static: limitation of device
Dynamic: inability to respond to change in measured
variable
2. Environmental: due to change in external conditions
(temperature, pressure, humidity, magnetic/electric fields)

Systematic Errors
28

1. Instrumental: inherent to measuring equipment

Example
s

Careful calibration
Inspection of eqpt Reductio
n
Applying correction
Methods
factors
High gain feedback
reduce error
Intelligent
instruments

Estimati
on

Bearing friction
Nonlinearities
Calibration errors
Damaged eqpt
Loss during
transmission

Compare to
more accurate
standard
Check if error is
constant or
proportional

Systematic Errors
29

2. Environmental: due to change in external conditions

Careful
monitoring of
changes
Calculate
expected
changes / drifts
Estimation

Reduction
Methods

Hermetically seal
eqpt and
components
Signal filtering
Maintain constant
temperature and
humidity
Shield eqpt from
stray magnetic
fields
Use eqpt not
affected greatly by
environmental
changes

Random Errors
30

Unknown events that causes small variations in

measurements.
Random and unexplainable
Estimate: Take many readings and conduct statistical
analysis

Methods of reduction:
1. Careful design of eqpt to reduce unwanted interference
2. Statistical analysis to determine best estimate and/or outlier
values

Error Reduction
32

Inspection and Care: ensure

measurement integrity.
Calibration: correct measurement drift

and scaling factor

Method of opposing input: compensate

environmental bias in measurement

High gain feedback: eliminate error
Signal filtering: reduce noise
Manual adjustment: compensate

environmental bias in measurement

Intelligent instruments: attenuate error

and amplify signals

Maximum and Likely Errors

33

THREE separate sources of error are identified:

system loading: 1.2%
environmental changes: 0.8%
calibration error: 0.5%
Maximum possible error
(1.2 0.8 0.5)% 2.5%

Likely error
1.2 2 0.82 0.52 %
1.53%

Aggregated Errors (1)

34

When

a measurement system is made up of several

components - each with its error estimate the combined
error needs to be aggregated

Error in a sum / difference

For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum

errors of ay and bz respectively, - where a and b are errors

fractions - the sum / difference S is

S ( y z) e
where likely error, e (ay ) 2 (bz ) 2

Note: Here e is
the absolute
error.

Example 1 : Errors in a Sum

35

The total resistance of 2 resistors (to 3 significant figures) each

with a tolerance of:

R1 99.3 1.0%

R2 46.123 6.5%
Solution:

Note: a = 0.01, b =
0.065 error fractions

e (0.01 99.3) 2 (0.065 46.123) 2

0.986 8.988 3.158
RT ( R1 R2 ) e
145.423 3.158
145 2.2%

THREE significant figures

Example 3
36

A fluid flow rate is calculated from the difference in pressure

measured on both sides of an orifice plate. The pressure
measurements are 10.0 and 9.5 bar and the error in the
pressure measuring instruments is specified as 0.1%. Find the
difference in pressure.

Aggregated Errors (2)

37

Error in a product / quotient

For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum

errors of ay and bz respectively, the product P is

P yz e
and the quotient Q is

y
Q
e
z

where e a 2 b 2

Note: Here e is the

fraction/percentage
error.

Example: Errors in a Product

38

If the density of a substance is calculated from measurements of

its mass and volume, where the respective errors are 2 and 3%,
find the maximum likely error in the density value.
Solution:

Since density is mass per unit volume

V
likely error is

e 0.02 2 0.032
0.0013 0.036

, then the

Example 4: Errors in a Product

39

Using the total resistance, RT calculated in Example 1, determine

the voltage across RT when the circuit current is measured at
3.15 A using an 0 10 A ammeter with full-scale accuracy of
0.1%.

Dynamic Characteristics
41

Describes instrument behaviour from the time measured

quantity changes until the time instrument output reaches

steady value
Numbered and categorized according to order of the
derivative
n
n 1
m

an

d y
d y
dy
d x
dx

a
y

b
b0 x
n 1
1
0
m
1
n
n 1
m
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

where
x = input
y = output
a, b = coefficient

Dynamic Characteristics
42

Zero order

If all coefficients a1an other than a0 is zero,

then

a0 y b0 x

or

b0
y x Kx
a0

where K is the instrument sensitivity.

Instrument output, y changes immediately

at the same time, t as change in measured
variable, x

Example: Potentiometer, where slider

motion/rotation changes resistance
instantaneously.

Dynamic Characteristics
43

First Order

If all coefficients a2an other than a0 and a1 is zero then

dy
a1
a0 y b0 x
dt

b0
Y (s)
G ( s)

X ( s ) a1s a0

In transfer
function
(Laplace
transform)

G ( s)
or

K
1 s

b0
a1
where K
and
a0
a0

Dynamic Characteristics
44

First Order
Instrument output, y changes in time monotonously in
response to step change in measured variable, x
Time constant, is the time taken for output to reach 63%
of final value
Time lag has to be considered when taking measurement
Example: Thermocouple, which
output e.m.f does not change
immediately with temperature change

Dynamic Characteristics
45

Second Order
If all coefficients a3an other than a0, a1 and a2 is zero then

d2y
dy
a2 2 a1 a0 y b0 x
dt
dt

In transfer
function

Example: Accelerometer which

has a damping factor between

0.6 0.8.

K
s 2 2s
2
1
n n

b
a1
where K 0 ,
a0
2 a0 a2
G ( s)

2 a1

n a0
K = sensitivity,
= damping factor,
n = undamped natural
frequency

Dynamic Characteristics
46

Second Order
Response of a 2nd order instrument depends on damping
factor,
= 0.707 is preferable as it provides critical damping
A = undamped,
constant oscillation
B = underdamped
C = critically damped
D = damped
E = overdamped

47