INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

MODULE 7

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INTRODUCTION
An organization is basically the association of
human beings and a major problem of todays
organization is how to get maximum possible
efforts and contributions of the human beings
determining these efforts and contributions, those
responsible for managing the organization must
understand the way human beings behave. It is to
be noted that the world of human work consists
of individual performing jobs in some setting,
usually in some organization.

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CONT..
The fact that there are tremendous
differences among individuals and
among jobs is the basis of the
frequently expressed notion of
matching people and jobs and of
the expression round pegs in square
holes when the match is not a
good one. Mismatches can occur in
any setting.
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VARIABLES INFLUENCING
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
The Person
Skills & abilities
Personality
Perceptions
Attitudes
Values
Ethics

The Environment
Organization
Work group
Job
Personal life

Behavior

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 Individual behavior means some

concrete action by a person.
The behavior of an individual is
influenced by various factors, some of
the factors lie within himself like his
instincts, personality traits, internal
feelings etc.. While some lie outside
him comprising the external
environment of which he is part.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR

Personality
Ability
Perception
Motivation
Socio-cultural factors
Organizational factors

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FOUNDATION OF INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOUR
Personal factors
Psychological factors
Organizational systems and
resources
Environmental factors

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Personal Factors

Age
Education
Abilities
creativity

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Psychological Factors

Personality
Perception
Attitude
Values
learning

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Organizational systems and

resources

Physical facilities
Organization structure and design
Leadership
Reward system
work

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Environmental Factors
Economic
political
Social norms and cultural values

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WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
Personality.
- The overall profile or combination of

characteristics that capture the unique nature

of a person as that person reacts and interacts
with others.
- Combines a set of physical and mental
characteristics that reflect how a person looks,
thinks, acts, and feels.
- Predictable relationships are expected between

peoples personalities and their behaviors.

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DETERMINANTS
Heredity and environment.
- Heredity sets the limits on the development of

personality characteristics.
- Environment determines development within these
limits.
About a 50-50 heredity-environment split.
- Cultural values and norms play a substantial role in
the development of personality.
- Social factors include family life, religion, and many
kinds of formal and informal groups.
- Situational factors reflect the opportunities or
constraints imposed by the operational context.

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Personality and the self-concept.

- Personality dynamics.
The ways in which an individual integrates and
organizes social traits, values and motives,
personal conceptions, and emotional adjustments.
- Self-concept.
The view individuals have of themselves as
physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.
Self-esteem.
Self-efficacy.

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HOW DO PERSONALITIES DIFFER?

Social traits.
- Surface-level traits that reflect the way a

person appears to others when interacting in

various social settings.
- An important social trait is problem-solving

style.
The way a person goes about gathering and

evaluating information in solving problems and

making decisions.
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Information gathering in problem solving.

- Getting and organizing data for use.
- Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and

order and emphasize well-defined details in

gathering information.
- Intuitive-type individuals like new problems

and dislike routine.

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Information evaluation in problem solving.

- Making judgments about how to deal with

information once it has been collected.

Feeling-type individuals are oriented toward
conformity and try to accommodate
themselves to other people.
- Thinking-type individuals use reason and
intellect to deal with problems and downplay
emotions.

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Big Five Personality Traits

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Sources: P. T. Costa and R. R. McCrae, The NEO-PI Personality Inventory (Odessa, Fla.: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1992); J. F. Salgado, The
SANDHYA
Five Factor Model of Personality and Job Performance
in the EuropeanANIL
Community, Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 30-43.

18

Types of Personality
Personality type theory aims to classify people into
distinct CATEGORIES. i.e. this type or that. Personality
types are synonymous with "personality styles".
Types refers to categories that are distinct and
discontinuous. e.g. you are one or the other. This is
important to understand, because it helps to
distinguish a personality type approach from a
personality trait approach, which takes a continuous
approach.

Type A personality
Type B personality
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 Meyer Friedman, an American cardiologist,

noticed in the 1940's that the chairs in his waiting
room got worn out from the edges. They
hypothesized that his patients were driven,
impatient people, who sat on the edge of their
seats when waiting. They labelled these people
"Type A" personalities. Type A personalities are
work-aholics, always busy, driven, somewhat
impatient, and so on. Type B personalities, on the
other hand are laid back and easy going. "Type A
personality" has found its way into general
parlance.

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THE PERFECTIONIST
One: Rational, conscientious, and
responsible, Type Ones organize
their energy around doing what
is right and good. Self-controlled
and sometimes resentful, they
can be critical of self and others.
They are also idealistic,
purposeful, and tend to adhere to
ethics, standards, and principles.
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THE HELPER
Two: Caring, empathic, and generous,
Type Twos organize their attention
around being loving and giving.
Thoughtful and attentive, they can
also become demanding and overlyintrusive if they feel their kindness
isn't appreciated. They may neglect
their own needs to serve others.
Good-natured and friendly, they are
also competent and reliable.
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THE ACHIEVER
Three: Efficient, effective highachievers, Threes believe they must
be successful to be loved. Industrious,
practical, and goal-oriented, they can
also be impatient and insensitive to
others, when they can tune-out their
feelings to accomplish tasks. They are
at their best when they learn to
balance work with relaxation and
achieving with feeling.
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CREATIVE ARTIST
Four: Expressive, empathetic, and
moody, Fours base their identity on
their feelings. They tend to cultivate
only certain feelings, while rejecting
others. They may focus on what's
distant and special and have an
aversion to the ordinary. Artistic,
authentic, and sensitive, they are
able to process painful experiences
more easily than other types.
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THE OBSERVER
Five: Intense, cerebral, and isolated,
Fives place their attention on thinking,
learning, and observing. They identify
with having ideas and expressing
unusual and insightful concepts.
Doubting their competency leads Fives
to become withholding, detached, and
overly private. At their best, they are
analytical, original thinkers who
explore unknown territory.

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THE LOYAL SPECIFIC

Six: Engaging, responsible, and
committed, Sixes can also be
fearful/anxious or
rebellious/confrontational. They have
an ambivalent relationship to
authority, wanting an outside authority
to ensure their safety, while doubting
the authority figure can deliver. On the
high side, Sixes are intuitive and loyal.
They make excellent troubleshooters
who can see through false pretenses.
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THE OPTIMIST
Seven: Energetic, positive, and
future-oriented, Sevens seek fun, new
experiences. They avoid anxiety and
pain by staying busy, planning, and
through achievements. Spontaneous
and adventurous, Sevens can become
distracted and scattered, trying to do
too many things at once. On the high
side, they are often multi-talented,
accomplished, and bring levity and
"joie de vivre" to those around them.
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THE BOSS
Eight: Powerful, decisive, and
action-oriented, Eights focus on
being strong and tough to earn
respect and survive in a hostile
world. When threatened, they can
become aggressive, quick to anger,
and extremely confrontational.
Decisive and confident, they make
excellent leaders, protecting the
weak and fighting injustice.
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THE MEDIATOR
Nine: Agreeable, gentle, and
easygoing, Nines focus their attention
on blending in with others and going
with the flow. Since they are conflictaverse, it can be challenging for Nines
to be direct, state what they want,
and take action. Their ability to see
both sides makes Nines excellent
mediators. They are also loyal friends
and steadfast partners.
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CONCEPTS TO SKILLS
The self-concept is the accumulation of knowledge
about the self, such as beliefs regarding personality
traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals,
and roles. Beginning in infancy, children acquire and
organize information about themselves as a way to
enable them to understand the relation between the
self and their social world. This developmental process
is a direct consequence of children's emerging
cognitive skills and their social relationships with both
family and peers. During early childhood, children's
self-concepts are less differentiated and are centered
on concrete characteristics, such as physical
attributes, possessions, and skills.
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Cont..
During middle childhood, the self-concept becomes
more integrated and differentiated as the child
engages in social comparison and more clearly
perceives the self as consisting of internal,
psychological characteristics. Throughout later
childhood and adolescence, the self-concept becomes
more abstract, complex, and hierarchically organized
into cognitive mental representations or selfschemas, which direct the processing of self-relevant
information.

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Four Theories of Personality

1.
2.
3.
4.

Trait
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
Socio-Cognitive

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Freudian Theory
Levels of consciousness
Conscious

Structures of
Personality

Id
What were aware of
according to the
pleasure
Preconscious
principle
Ego
Memories etc. that can be recalled

Operates according
to the reality
principle

Unconscious

Wishes, feelings, impulses that

Superego
lies beyond awareness
Contains
values and ideals
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Freudian Theory
Anxiety occurs when:
Impulses from the id threaten to get out
of control
The ego perceives danger from the
environment

The ego deals with the problem

through:
coping strategies
defense mechanisms
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Myers-Briggs Personality Type

Indicator MBTI
Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung developed a
theory early in the 20th century to describe
basic individual preferences and explain
similarities and differences between people
Main postulate of the theory is that people have
inborn behavioral tendencies and preferences
Your natural response in daily situations
Used when we are generally not stressed and feel
competent, and energetic
Could be defined as those behaviors you often dont
notice

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Four MBTI
Dichotomies
Extraversion Introversion
E - I Dichotomy

Where do you prefer to focus

your attention and get your
energy?

Sensing Intuition
S - N Dichotomy

How do you prefer to take in

information?

Thinking Feeling
T - F Dichotomy

How do you make decisions?

Judging Perceiving
J - P Dichotomy

How do you deal with the

outer world?

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Humanistic Theory
Humanistic personality theories reject
psychoanalytic notions
Humanistic theories view each person as
basically good and that people are striving
for self-fulfillment
Humanistic theory argues that people
carry a perception of themselves and of
the world
The goal for a humanist is to
develop/promote a positive self-concept
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Humanistic Perspectives
Carl Rogers
We have needs for:
Self-consistency (absence of conflict
between self-perceptions
Congruence (consistency between selfperceptions and experience)

Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat

People with low self-esteem generally
have poor congruence between their
self-concepts and life experiences.
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Social/Cognitive Perspective
Proposed that each person has a unique
personality because of our personal histories
and interpretations shape our personalities
Albert Banduras social-cognitive approach
focuses on self-efficacy and reciprocal
determinism.
Julian Rotters locus of control theory
emphasizes a persons internal or external
focus as a major determinant of personality.

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Locus of Control (Rotter)

Internal locus of control
Life outcomes are under personal
control
Positively correlated with self-esteem
Internals use more problem-focused
coping

External locus of control

Luck, chance, and powerful others
control behavior
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How is Personality
Measured?
Projective Test - elicits an individuals response to
abstract stimuli
Behavioral Measures - personality assessments
that involve observing an individuals behavior in a
controlled situation
Self-Report Questionnaire - assessment involving
an individuals responses to questions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - instrument
measuring Jungs theory of individual differences.

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Cont.
Interview method
Case history method
Observation method

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Personality Attributes
Influencing OB
- The way individuals tend to think about their

social and physical settings as well as their

major beliefs and personal orientation.
Locus of control.
Authoritarianism/dogmatism.
Machiavellianism.
Self-monitoring.

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Locus of control.
- The extent to which a person feels able to

control his/her own life.

- Externals.
More extraverted in their interpersonal
relationships and more oriented toward the world
around them.
- Internals.
More introverted and more oriented towards their

own feelings and ideas.

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Authoritarianism/dogmatism.
- Authoritarianism.
Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values

and to obey recognized authority.

- Dogmatism.
Tendency to view the world as a threatening place.

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People with a high-Machiavellian personality:

- Approach situations logically and

thoughtfully.
- Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.
Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past
promises, or others opinions.
- Are skilled at influencing others.
- Try to exploit loosely structured situations.
- Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner

in highly structured situations.

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People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

- Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

structured situations.
Work hard to do well in highly structured
situations.

- Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.

- Are unlikely to lie or cheat.

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Self-monitoring.
- A persons ability to adjust his/her behavior to

external situational factors.

High self-monitors.
Sensitive to external cues.
Behave differently in different situations.

- Low self-monitors.
Not sensitive to external cues.
Not able to disguise their behaviors.

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PERCEPTION
People often see the same phenomenon
differently both with the organizational context
and outside the organization. For example, in
relation to a strike, a manager may perceive the
immediate cause of the strike as trivial, while the
workers may see it as very serious.
Similarly, when there is any accident in the
factory, the supervisor treat it as the carelessness
of workers while the workers may treat it has high
handedness of the management and lack of
adequate provisions of security measures.
Thus, the situations remaining the same, causes
have been assigned differently by different group
of persons. In order to understand the
significance of this phenomenon, one has to
understand perception and its different aspects .
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Cont..
The behaviour of people is according to their
perception. Perception is the cognitive
process. Cognition is basically a bit of
information, and cognitive process involved in
ways in which people process that
information. Like central processing units
(CPU) of a computer, human beings also or
information processors with on basic
difference. While as the computers process a
piece of information in the identical manner
with identical output, human beings may differ
because of their difference and uniqueness.
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DEFINITION

Stephen P. Robins has defined

perception as Perception may be
defined as a process by which
individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order
to give meaning to their
environment.

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DEFINITION

B. Von Haller Gilmer defined,

Perception is the process of
becoming aware of situations, of
adding meaningful associations to
sensations.

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DEFINITION

Udai Pareek defined,

Perception can be defined as the
process of receiving, Selecting
organizing, interpreting, checking
and reactive to sensory stimuli or
data.

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Perception is an intellectual process,

through which person selects the data from
environment, organizes it and obtains
meaning from it. The physical of obtaining
data from environment, known as sensation.
Perception is the basic cognitive or
psychological process. The manner in which
a person perceives the environment affects
his behavior. Thus, peoples actions,
emotions, thoughts or feelings are triggered
by the perception.

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 Perception, being an intellectual and

psychological process, becomes a subjective
process and different people may perceive
the same environmental event differently
based on what particular aspects of the
situation they choose to absorb, how they
organize this information, and the manner in
which they interpret it to obtain their grasp of
the situation. Thus, the subjectively perceived
really in any given setting may be different
for different people.
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Why is perception important in

the study of O.B?
Because peoples behavior is based
on their perception of what reality is,
not reality itself. The world as it is
perceived is the world i.e.,
behaviorally important.

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Perception and Sensation :

There has been a great deal of misunderstanding
about the relationship between sensation and
perception. The physical senses vision, hearing,
touch, smell and taste are different from the
perception.
The sensation essentially deals with very elementary
behavior that is largely determined by physiological
functioning. Perception on the other hand, is much
more complex and broader than sensation.
It is virtually a cognitive, psychological process of
sensing, filtering and modifying the raw data. As
sensation plays an important role of people in their
private lives, perception plays a crucial part in
organizational life.
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When you
change
the way you look
at things, the
things you look at
change.

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

PERCEPTION

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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Input
Input

Organisation
Selection

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Outputs

Interpretation

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60

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 Perception is essentially a psychological

process. It is the chief mechanism by which
people come to know about their surrounding
environment.
Perception is the process whereby people
select, organize and interpret sensory
stimulations into meaningful information
about their work environment.
There can be known behavior without
perception and perception lies at the base of
every individual behavior.
The best supervisor is one who can accurately
and precisely estimate employees
perceptions and made his moves.
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 Perception is a process that operates constantly

between reality and us.
There are three well-noted mechanisms of
perception section takes account of only those
stimuli that are relevant and appropriate for
only those stimuli that are relevant and
appropriate for an individual.
Perceptual organization is concerned with
harnessing the perceived inputs and converting
them into a meaningful shape or form.
The final mechanism perceptual
interpretation, deals with inference from
observed meaning from the perceived events or
objects. From it emanates the resultant
behavior of individual.
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Stages of Perceptual
Process
1. Attention and selection

Constant bombardment with sensory information

is handled by screening the info, both consciously
& unconsciously, for what is important

2. Organization

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Use schemas or cognitive frameworks to organize

incoming information
E.g., we use our person schemas to organize info
about other people into prototypes (an abstract
set of features common to all members of a group)
E.g., script schema defines what one sees as the
appropriate sequence of events in a situation

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Stages of Perceptual
Process
3. Interpretation

Personal reasoning as to why

something is the way it is

4. Retrieval

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Ease of access to memories; influenced

by prototypes

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What are common

perceptual distortions?
Common perceptual distortions

include:
Stereotypes or prototypes.
Halo effects.
Selective perception.
Projection.
Contrast effects.
Self-fulfilling prophecy.
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 Stereotypes or prototypes.
Combines information based on the

category or class to which a person,

situation, or object belongs.
Strong impact at the organization stage.
Individual differences are obscured.

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 Halo effects.
Occur when one attribute of a person or
situation is used to develop an overall
impression of the individual or situation.
Likely to occur in the organization stage.
Individual differences are obscured.
Important in the performance appraisal
process.

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 Selective perception.
The tendency to single out those aspects

of a situation, person, or object that are

consistent with ones needs, values, or
attitudes.
Strongest impact is at the attention
stage.
Perception checking with other persons
can help counter the adverse impact of
selective perception.
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 Projection.
The assignment of ones personal

attributes to other individuals.

Especially likely to occur in
interpretation stage.
Projection can be controlled through a
high degree of self-awareness and
empathy.

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 Contrast effects.
Occur when an individual is compared to

other people on the same

characteristics on which the others rank
higher or lower.

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 Self-fulfilling prophecy.
The tendency to create or find in
another situation or individual that
which one expected to find.
Also called the Pygmalion effect.
Can have either positive or negative
outcomes.
Managers should adopt positive and
optimistic approaches to people at work.
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 Impression management.
A persons systematic attempt to
behave in ways that create and
maintain desired impressions in others
eyes.
Successful managers:
Use impression management to enhance

their own images.

Are sensitive to other peoples use of
impression management.

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How can the perceptual

process be managed?
Distortion management.
Managers should:
Balance automatic and controlled

information processing at the attention and

selection stage.
Broaden their schemas at the organizing

stage.
Be attuned to attributions at the

interpretation stage.
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What is attribution theory?

Attribution theory aids in perceptual

interpretation by focusing on how

people attempt to:
Understand the causes of a certain

event.
Assess responsibility for the outcomes of
the event.
Evaluate the personal qualities of the
people involved in the event.
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What is attribution theory?

Internal versus external attributions

of causes of behavior.
Internal causes are under the

individuals control.
External causes are within the persons

environment.

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What is attribution theory?

Factors influencing internal and

external attributions.
Distinctiveness consistency of a

persons behavior across situations.

Consensus likelihood of others
responding in a similar way.
Consistency whether an individual
responds the same way across time.

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What is attribution theory?

Fundamental attribution error.
Applies to the evaluation of someones

else behavior.
Attributing success to the influence of

situational factors.
Attributing failure to the influence of

personal factors.

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Elements of Attribution
Theory

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What is attribution theory?

Self-serving bias.
Applies to the evaluation of our own

behavior.
Attributing success to the influence of

personal factors.
Attributing failure to the influence of

situational factors.
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What is attribution theory?

Attributions across cultures.
The fundamental attribution error and

self-serving bias operate differently in

different cultures.

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EMOTIONS
Emotions can influence
organizational behavior in a number
of ways, Some of the ways are direct,
such as the triggering of behavior by
emotions, whereas other ways are
indirect, such as emotions
influencing behavior through
mediating mechanisms like
motivation or cognition.
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Important
Terms

What Are
Emotions?

Felt Versus
Display Emotions
Emotional
Dissonance

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What Are Emotions?

Affect
Affect

AAbroad
broadrange
rangeofofemotions
emotionsthat
thatpeople
people
experience.
experience.

Emotions
Emotions

Moods
Moods

Intense
Intensefeelings
feelingsthat
thatare
are
directed
directedat
atsomeone
someoneor
or
something.
something.

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Feelings
Feelingsthat
thattend
tendto
tobe
be
less
lessintense
intensethan
thanemotions
emotions
and
andthat
thatlack
lackaacontextual
contextual
stimulus.
stimulus.

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 Until recently, the topic of emotions had been all but

ignored in management scholarship. There are two
possible explanations. First, the myth of rationality held
that well-run organizations operated without frustration,
anger, love, hate, joy, grief, and similar feelings. Since
such emotions were the antithesis of rationality, even
though researchers and managers tried to create
organizations that were emotion-free. Second, when
emotions were considered, the strong negative emotions
(like anger) took center stage because they interfered
with the productivity of employees. So emotions were
rarely viewed as being constructive or motivational. But
no study of behavior could be comprehensive without
studying the role of emotions in the workplace.

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 Before going further, we need to clarify

three closely-related terms. Affect is a
generic term that covers a broad range of
human feelings. It is an umbrella concept
that encompasses both emotions and
moods. Emotions are intense feelings
which are directed at someone or
something. Moods are feelings that tend to
be less intense than emotions and lack a
contextual stimulus.
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Six Universal Emotions

Happiness

Fear
Surprise

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Anger
Sadness

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Disgust

87

 Research has identified six universal emotions:

anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and
surprise. These emotions can be conceptualized as
existing along a continuum. The closer any two
emotions are on this continuum, the more people
are likely to confuse them. For example, happiness
and surprise are often mistaken, but happiness
and disgust are rarely confused.
People give different responses to identical
emotion-provoking stimuli. In some cases, this can
be attributed to the individuals personality. Other
times it is a result of the job requirements.

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Emotionless
People

Other Key
Issues

Gender
and Emotions
Culture
and Emotions

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 Some people find it hard to express their

emotions and to understand the emotions
of others. Psychologists call this condition
alexithymia (Greek for lack of emotion).
Does their inability to express emotions or
read others mean that they will be poor
workers? Not necessarily. While they are
ill-suited for sales or managerial positions,
they may be excellent computer
programmers.
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 It is widely assumed that women are more in

touch with their feelings than men. Is this
assumption true? Evidence confirms that women
and men differ in their emotional abilities. Women
show greater emotional expression than men; they
experience emotions more intensely and display
them more frequently; they are more comfortable
expressing their emotions; and they are better at
reading nonverbal cues. Three possible explanations
for these differences have been offered:
(1) men and women are socialized differently;
(2) women have more innate ability to read others
and express their emotions; and
(3) women have a greater need for social approval
and display more positive emotions.
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 What is acceptable in one culture may be unusual

or dysfunctional in another culture. And cultures
interpret emotions differently. There tends to be
high agreement on what emotions mean within
cultures but not between them. Studies show that
some cultures lack words for such standard
emotions as anxiety, depression, or guilt, for
instance, do not have a word directly equivalent
to sadness.

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OB Applications
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Decision Making
Motivation
Leadership
Interpersonal Conflict
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to a assortment of

non-cognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that
influence a persons ability to cope with environmental
demands and pressures. It is composed of five
dimensions: self-awareness, self-management, selfmotivation, empathy, and social skills. Several studies
show that EI can play an important role in job
performance, especially in jobs that demand a high
degree of social interaction.
Traditional approaches to decision making in
organizations have emphasized rationality and
downplayed or ignored the role of emotions. Yet, it is
nave to assume that decisions are not influenced by
ones feelings. Indeed, people use emotions as well as
rational and intuitive processes when making decisions.
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Ability and Selection

Emotional
EmotionalIntelligence
Intelligence(EI)
(EI)
Self-awareness
Self-awareness
Self-management
Self-management
Self-motivation
Self-motivation
Empathy
Empathy
Social
Socialskills
skills
Research
ResearchFindings
Findings
High
HighEI
EIscores,
scores,not
nothigh
high
IQ
IQscores,
scores,characterize
characterize
high
highperformers.
performers.

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EMOTIONAL LABOR

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 Every employee expends physical and mental

labor on the job. But most jobs require emotional
labor. This is when an employee expresses
organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions. Emotional labor
creates dilemmas for employees when their job
requires that they exhibit emotions which are
incongruous with their true feelings. Felt
emotions are a persons actual emotions.
Displayed emotions are considered appropriate in
a given job. The key point is that felt and
displayed emotions are often quite different.
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OB Applications of
Understanding Emotions
Ability and Selection
Emotions affect employee effectiveness.

Decision Making
Emotions are an important part of the
decision-making process in organizations.

Motivation
Emotional commitment to work and high
motivation are strongly linked.

Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of
messages from organizational leaders.
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OB Applications of
Understanding Emotions
Interpersonal Conflict
Conflict in the workplace and individual
emotions are strongly intertwined.

Deviant Workplace Behaviors

Negative emotions can lead to employee
deviance in the form of actions that violate
established norms and threaten the
organization and its members.

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Productivity failures
Property theft and destruction
Political actions
Personal aggression
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ATTITUDES
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that
represents an individual's degree of like or
dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally
positive or negative views of a person,
place, thing, or eventthis is often referred
to as the attitude object. People can also be
conflicted or ambivalent toward an object,
meaning that they simultaneously possess
both positive and negative attitudes toward
the item in question.
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Definitions
Attitudes are likes and dislikes
According to Bem

Attitude is learned predispositions to

respond to an object or class of object
in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable way
According to Allport
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SOURCES OF ATTITUDE
Attitudes are acquired from parents, teachers and
members of the peer group. The genetic make-up of a
child initially determines his personality and attitudes.
However, as the child begins his schooling and
interacts with people, his attitudes are influenced by
the people whom he admires, respects or fears.
Individuals are more willing to modify their behavior
and shape their attitude to align with the behavior of
people whom they look up to.
This is the reason why companies have their products
endorsed by popular personalities such as leading
cricket players and film stars. Such endorsement
helps develop a positive attitude toward their
products among the public.
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CONT..
People are generally not as steadfast about their
attitudes as they are about their values.
Thus, the attitudes of people can be easily influenced
and altered. Attitudes can be changed by various
means: by providing new information, by coercion or
threat, by resolving differences, and by involving
people (dissatisfied with a situation in the organization)
in problem solving.
It is only natural for employees to have a hostile
attitude toward change in the organization. However, if
the management helps employees understand the
competitive threat the organization is facing and
makes them realize the need for change and
organization development, the employees will, most
likely, overcome their hostile attitude and agree to
bring about change in the organization.
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CONT
Attitudes can also be changed by providing the
right type of feedback to employees. If a manager
always makes only negative remarks in his
feedback to employees, the employees may
develop a negative attitude towards the job and
workplace.
The manager should therefore be trained to give
objective feedback (which includes both positive
and negative points) in a manner that does not
de-motivating employees. This will help change
the attitude of employees towards their job and
work environment and will go a long way in
preventing job dissatisfaction and turnover.
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Personal experience
People come into contact with objects in their everyday
environment. Some are familiar while others are new. We
evaluate the new and reevaluate the old and this evaluation
process assists in developing attitudes toward objects.

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CONT..
Needs: Because needs differ and also vary over time, people
can develop different attitudes toward the same object at
different points in their life.
Selective perception: We have seen that people operate on
their personal interpretation of reality.
Personality is another factor influencing how people process
their direct experiences with objects. How aggressive passive
introverted extroverted and so on that people are will affect the
attitudes they form.

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Group Associations
All people are influenced to one degree or another by other
members in the groups to which they belong. Attitudes are one
target for this influence. Our attitudes toward products ethics
warfare and a multitude of other subjects are influenced
strongly by groups that we value and with which we do or
wish to associate. Several groups, including family, work, and
peer groups, and cultural and sub-cultural groups, are
important in affecting a persons attitude development.

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Influential Others
A individuals attitude can be formed and changed
through personal contact with influential persons
such as respected friends relatives and experts.
Opinion leaders are examples of people who are
respected by their followers and who may strongly
influence the attitudes.

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TYPES OF ATTITUDE
Job satisfaction
Job involvement
Organizational commitment

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Job Satisfaction
One of the tasks of managers is to provide
satisfaction to employees from their
respective jobs. The term Job-satisfaction
refers to an individuals general attitude
towards his job. A person with high job
satisfaction holds positive attitude towards
his job, while a person who is dissatisfied
with his job holds a negative attitude more
often than not they mean job satisfaction. In
fact, the two terms are used interchangeably.
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Job Involvement
The term job involvement refers to
the degree to which a person
identifies psychologically with his job
and considers his perceived
performance level important to his
self worth. A person with a high
degree of involvement will identify
with his job and will care about the
kind of work he does on his job.
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Organizational Commitment
If job involvement refers to ones
identification with particular job,
organizational commitments means
ones involvement with his employing
organization. Being another name for
organizational loyalty, organizational
commitment results in a stable work
force. As with job involvement, attitude
is an important variable in determining
organizational commitment.
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Cognitive dissonance theory

One obstacle to the change of attitude is the
attitude theory of balance and consistency. That is,
human beings prefer their attitudes bout people,
and things to be in line (i.e., balanced, consistent)
with their behaviors towards each other objects.
When attitudes or behaviors are not consistence,
people usually seek to reduce the inconsistency
rewarding internally. Leon Festinger has developed
a theory in support of attitude consistency called
cognitive dissonance.
Festingers theory states that dissonance makes an
individual feel uncomfortable. This feeling makes
the individual try to reduce dissonance.
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Cont..
Cognitive dissonance also occurs when a person behaves in
fashion that is inconsistent with his or her attitude. For
example, a person may realize that smoking and overeating are
dangerous, yet continue to do both.
Because the attitude and behaviors are not consistent with each
other, the person probably will experience a certain amount of
tension and discomfort and may engage in dissonance
reduction, seeking ways to reduce the dissonance and tension it
causes.
The dissonance associated with smoking might be resolved
rationalizing. Just a pack a day will not affect my health, or
I can quit when I have to do. With regard to overrating, the
person may decide to go on a diet Next week. In general,
the person attempts to change the attitude, alter the behavior, or
perceptually distort the circumstances to reduce tension and
discomfort.
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Cont..
In the organizational setting cognitive
dissonance occur when an employee desires
to leave the present job as there is no use in
continuing and working hard. The individual
may rationalize his or her stay with such
explanations as, Organisation is not bad,
after all, or what is the alternative?
The second barrier to change of attitude is
prior commitments. This occurs when people
feel a commitment to a particular course of
action and are unwilling to change.
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Cont
The third barrier results from insufficient
information. Sometimes people see no reason
why they should change their attitudes. The
boss may not like a subordinates negative
attitude, but the latter may be quite pleased
with his behaviour. Unless the boss can show
the individual why a negative attitude is
detrimental to career progress or salary
increases of some other personal objective,
the subordinates may continue to have
negative.
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Ways of Changing (Change

of Attitudes)
1. Providing New Information : New information will help
change attitudes. Negative attitudes are mainly formed owing
to lack of or insufficient information. Workers generally
become pro-union because of the ignorance about the good
intentions of the management. Once they come to know how
the management cares for the welfare of the workers, they
change their attitude and might turn pro-management.
2. Use of Fear : Fear can change attitude. However, the change
depends on the degree of fear. For example, if low levels of
fear arousal are used, people often ignore them. The warnings
are not strong enough to warrant attention. If moderate levels
of fear arousal are used, people often become aware of the
situation and will change their attitude.
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Cont
3. Influence of Friends or Peers : Change of attitude can come
about through persuasion of friends or peers. Credibility of the
others, especially peers, is important to effect change. Peers
with high creditability shall exercise significant influence on
change. The same is not true with peers who have low
credibility.
4. The co-opting Approach : Co-opting is another way of
changing attitude. This means taking people who are dissatisfied
with a situation and getting them involved in improving things.
5. Others: Research has shown that an individual is more likely
to change a privately held attitude than one he has stated
publicly. It is, therefore, necessary that a situation is avoided
where the individual makes his attitude public prior to change
attempt.
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Cont..
The individual from a culturally deprived
environment, who holds an array of hostile
attitudes, may change when he is given
opportunities for education. A person form a
privileged subculture, who has always held to
a democratic attitude, may become negative
towards some group because of one
unfortunate experience.
Again, through continued association with
others holding similar attitude, one can be
influenced in a positive or negative direction.
Here the attitude of both the reference group
and the social climate are important.
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Values
Value is generally used in two different ways: as a
characteristic of an object or as an attribute
possessed by an individual & through desirable.
A value system is viewed as a relatively
permanent perceptual frame work which
influences the nature of an individual's behavior.
The values are the attributes possessed by an
individual & thought desirable.
Values are similar to attitude but are more
permanent & well built in nature.

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 A value system is a set of consistent

values and measures. A principle
value is a foundation upon which
other values and measures of integrity
are based. Those values which are not
physiologically determined and
normally considered objective, such
as a desire to avoid physical pain,
seek pleasure, etc., are considered
subjective, vary across individuals and
cultures and are in many ways aligned
with belief and belief systems.
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Values
Definition:
Values are global beliefs that guide actions &
judgments across a variety of situations.
The Characteristics of values are:
Values provide standards of competence &
morality
Values are fewer in number than attitudes
Values are relatively permanent & resistance to
change
Values are most central to the core of the
person

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Values
Importance of values:
Values lay the foundation for the
understanding of attitude and
motivation
Personal value system influence the
perception of individuals
Value system influences perception
Value system influences decision
making & solution to various problems
Values influence the attitude & behavior.
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Values
Types of values:
An extensive research conducted by the noted
psychologist Miltion Rokeach identifies two basic
types of values:
Terminal values a terminal value is an ultimate
goal in a desired status or outcome. These lead
to the ends to be achieved.
Eg., comfortable life, wisdom, pleasure,
salvation, equality, freedom etc.

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Values
Instrumental values: It relates to means
for achieving desired ends. It is a tool for
acquiring a terminal value.
E.g., Ambition, capable, clean, loving, logical
etc.

Formation of values:
Values are learned & acquired primarily
through experience with people & institutions.
Values are also taught & reinforced in schools,
religious organizations & social group.
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Mean value of Executives, Union

Members & Activists ( Top five)
Executiv
es

Union
Member
s

Activists

Terminal

Instrument Terminal
al

Instru
mental

Selfrespect

Honest

Family
Security

Respon Equality
sible

Honest

Familysecurity

Responsibl
e

Freedom

Honest

Helpful

Freedom

Capable

Happines Courag Family

s
e's
Security

Courage's

Selfrespect

Self
respect

Responsibl
e

Freedom

Capable

A sense
Ambitious
of
accomplis
hment
Happines
s
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Independe
nt

Indepe
ndent

Mature
Capabl
loveSANDHYA ANIL
e

Terminal

A world
of peace

Instrumen
tal

126

SOURCES OF OUR VALUE

SYSTEM

SOCIAL FACTORS
PERSONAL FACTORS
CULTURAL FACTORS
RELIGIOUS FACTORS
LIFE EXPERIENCE
ROLE DEMANDS

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LOYALTY AND EHTHICAL

BEHAVIOUR
Over the last thirty years, a variety of definitions for
loyalty have appeared in the organizational literature.
Some descriptions can be traced to earlier on the
relationship between firms and their employees
(Lawrence, 1958; Whyte, 1956), which emphasized the
devotion of workers to their organizations as reflected
in their compliance with instructions from supervisors.
Other definitions have emerged more recently from
research on organizational commitment (Meyer and
Allen, 1991; Mowday et al., 1982; O'Reilly and
Chatman, 1986) and related variables (Bhappu, 2000;
Werhane, 1999a), in which loyalty has sometimes
been used as a synonym for one or more forms of
commitment.
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Cont.
Today, definitions of loyalty range from specific to
broad, and capture attitudes and behaviors
involving a variety of foci (Butler and Cantrell,
1984; Fletcher, 1993).
As the set of definitions continues to expand, it
becomes increasingly difficult to determine
exactly what is meant by "loyalty" and how it
should be measured. This leads to contradictory
findings about the presence or absence of loyalty
in organizations and makes it more difficult to
identify loyalty's antecedents and outcomes.

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Cont.
First, the notion that loyal individuals select values
highlights the fact that loyalty involves a voluntary
decision about what standards to use in evaluating
potential courses of action in the workplace.
Second, Allport's (1933) suggestion that loyalty
involves adherence indicates the importance of on
going behavior among loyal individuals.
Finally, his view that loyalty involves adherence to
some principle of conduct we consider good
emphasizes loyalty's moral nature. Though a variety
of definitions for morality exist, they generally refer
to behavior that conforms to principles of right
conduct (Dunfee, 2001).
By evaluating various principles of conduct and
adhering to those viewed as good, the loyal
individual engages in moral judgment prior to action.
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Cont
The inclusion of "moral principles" in the new
definition is based on Oldenquist's (1982)
conceptualization of loyalty. It is meant to suggest
that a loyal individual decides upon appropriate
courses of action by focusing on a community's
moral principles.

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Learning in Organizations
Definition: A relatively permanent
change in knowledge or behavior that
results from practice or experience.

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The Learning
Organizational
learning is the process through
Organization

which managers instill in all members of an

organization a desire to find new ways to
improve organizational effectiveness.
Five activities are central to a learning
organization:

Encouragement of personal mastery or high selfefficacy.

Development of complex schemas to understand
work activities.
Encouragement of learning in groups and teams.
Communicating a shared vision for the organization
as a whole.
Encouraging systematic thinking.
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Cont..
Knowledge management is the
ability to capitalize on the
knowledge possessed by
organizational members which is
not necessarily written down
anywhere or codified in formal
documents.
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THEORIES OF LEARNING
The behavioral orientation
The cognitive orientation
The humanistic orientation
The social/situational orientation
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Few Prominent Theories

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Cognitive learning
Social learning theories
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Operant
Conditioning
Learning that takes place
when the learner
recognizes the connection
between a behavior and
its consequences.
Individuals learn to operate
on their environment, to
behave in certain ways to
achieve desirable
consequences or avoid
undesirable consequences.
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Insert Figure 5.1 here

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Reinforcement
Reinforcement: Increasing the probability
that a desired behavior will occur again in
the future by applying consequences that
depend on the behavior in question.
Positive Reinforcement: The
administration of positive consequences to
workers who perform desired behaviors.
Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise,
awards

Negative Reinforcement: The removal

of negative consequences when workers
perform desired behaviors.
Nagging, complaining
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Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs
after every occurrence of a behavior.
Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a
portion of the time that behavior occurs.
Differences:
Continuous reinforcement can result in
faster learning of desired behaviors.
Behaviors learned using partial
reinforcement are likely to last longer.

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Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Interval Schedule:
Schedule The period of time
between the occurrence of each instance of
reinforcement is fixed or set.
Variable-Interval Schedule:
Schedule The amount of
time between reinforcements varies around a
constant average.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule:
Schedule A certain number of
desired behaviors must occur before
reinforcement is provided.
Variable-Ratio Schedule:
Schedule The number of
desired behaviors that must occur before
reinforcement varies around a constant
average.
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Extinction and
Punishment
Extinction:
Extinction Removing a consequence that is
currently reinforcing an undesirable behavior
in an effort to decrease the probability that the
behavior will occur again in the future.
Punishment:
Punishment Administering negative
consequences to workers who perform
undesirable behaviors in an effort to decrease
the probability that the behavior will occur
again in the future.
Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of
privileges
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Negative Reinforcement vs.

Punishment

These two concepts are often confused; however,

they differ from each other in two important ways.
First difference:
Punishment reduces the probability of an
undesired behavior.
Negative reinforcement increases the
probability of a desired behavior.
Second difference:
Punishment involves administering a negative
consequence when an undesired behavior
occurs.
Negative reinforcement entails removing a
negative consequence when a desired behavior
occurs.
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Classical Conditioning

Example
Learning that results from pairing two
events in the environment.
Learn to associate a neutral event with
another event or stimulus from the
environment.

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Classical Conditioning
Pavlov:
Paired neutral stimulus (tone/bell) with
coming of food.
What occurred when bell alone was
sounded?
What is the difference between when the
dog salivated to food versus the bell?
Food naturally causes salivation
Tone/bell learned to associate with
food causes salivation.
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Terms:
Two parts: response (action that
takes place)
stimulus (cause of action)
Response: salivation
Stimulus: food, bell/tone
How do we differentiate between
food/salivation and bell/salivation?
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Terms
Food and salivation:
a. Unconditioned Stimuli and
Response
UCS (food) & UCR (salivation)
occurs naturally, automatically,
unconditionally.
NOT learned, like reflex
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Terms
Bell and Salivation:
b. Conditioned Stimuli and Response
CS (tone/bell) & CR (salivation)
originally NEUTRAL stimulus, that, after
being paired with UCS, triggers CR.
learned, NOT automatic.
not naturally occurring.

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Classical Conditioning
Conditioning Processes and Principles
a. Acquisition: initial stage of learning.
b. Extinction: diminishing of a CR.
When CS is no longer paired with UCS,
eventually, the CS ALONE will not elicit the CR.

c. Spontaneous Recovery:
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an
extinguished CR.
(What does this suggest?)

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Classical Conditioning
Example of Little Albert (Watson).
d. Generalization: when a CS is
paired with a UCS, stimuli similar to
CS can evoke similar responses (like
CR).
e. Discrimination: learned ability to
distinguish between two stimuli.
How could an animal be trained to
discriminate between stimuli?
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Classical Conditioning
Limits and concerns with original theory.
From CC early psychologists concluded:
Any organism can be conditioned to any
stimulus.
a. Influence of biological predispositions (Garcia & Koelling,
1966).

Only study observable responses/behavior.

b. No mention of mental processes

(dogs were passive, mechanical, mindless)
Behaviorism: only study observable behavior, no
thoughts, cognition, etc.
Couldnt use terms: expectation, prediction
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Social Learning Theory

A learning theory that
takes into account the
fact that thoughts and
feelings influence
learning.
Necessary components
include
Vicarious learning
Self-control
Self-efficacy
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Insert Figure 5.3 here

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Vicarious Learning
Learning that occurs when one person (the learner)
learns a behavior by watching another person (the
model) perform the behavior.
Conditions required for vicarious learning to take
place:
Learner observes the model when the model is
performing the behavior
Learner accurately perceives models behavior
Learner must remember the behavior
Learner must have the skills and abilities to
perform the behavior
Learner must see that the model receives
reinforcement for the behavior in question
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Cont..
Learners can also learn from
situations in which models get
punished.
Role models can be positive or
negative.

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Self-Control
Self-discipline that allows a person to
learn to perform a behavior even though
there is no external pressure to do so.
Conditions indicating a person is using
self-control:
Individual is engaging in a low-probability
behavior
Self-reinforce are available to the learner
The learner sets goals that determine when
self-reinforcement takes place
The learner administers reinforcers when the
goal is achieved
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Self-Efficacy
A persons belief about his or her ability to
perform a particular behavior successfully.
Not the same as self-esteem

Self-efficacy affects learning in three ways:

The activities and goals that individuals choose for
themselves
The effort that individuals exert
The persistence with which a person tries to
master new and sometimes difficult tasks

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Cont
Four sources of self-efficacy:
Past performance
Vicarious experience or observation
of others
Verbal persuasion
Individuals readings of their internal
physiological states

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Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget

Interaction with the environment

Development of schemata
Active nature of learning
Discovery learning

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Cont..
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who
developed an interest in how children think. He
proposed that childrens' thought processes
develop from birth through a series of stages.
He stated that children think in a different way
to adults. He felt that the child had to progress
through the stages by interacting with their
environment.
He proposed the notion of schema -a set of
interrelated ideas about a concept. These
schemas (or schemata) develop from the basic
reflexes that the infant is born with, through the
interaction with their environment.
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Cont.
So a baby is born with a sucking reflex, which is
applied to any object that the baby grasps; in doing so
the baby notices and absorbs other characteristics of
the object
Piaget focused on the active nature of learning. The
individual is naturally interested in exploring the
environment and will learn through discovery.
Piaget never applied his ideas to education, but others
have. Discovery learning focuses on the active nature
of the learner, using interaction with the environment.
The teacher must set up an appropriate environment
to ensure that learning occurs.

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Cont.
Discovery learning is one of the most
important of the learning approaches
because it can be highly motivating and can
help children to structure what they are
learning. It is also one of the most difficult
to use well and creating situations in which
children can make discoveries which are
within their capacity is a fascinating
professional task.
(Dean J.1983)

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Organizational application
Employee discipline
Developing training programmes
Creating mentoring programmes
Self management
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